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Toxins
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Bioactivity and Chemical Ecological Interactions of Marine Toxins
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Bioactivity and Chemical Ecological Interactions of Marine Toxins

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine and Freshwater Toxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 21331

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Allan Cembella

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Alfred-Wegner-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
Interests: chemical and molecular ecology of protists; genetics of toxin biosynthesis; toxinology and ecotoxicology of harmful microalgae; harmful algal blooms and marine food webs; marine phycotoxin dynamics and diversity; marine microbial biotechnology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

A vast array of marine organisms, including microeukaryotes and prokaryotes, metazoa, marine plants and macroalgae, are capable of biosynthezing natural bioactive substances. Many of these compounds are designated as toxins if they exhibit inimical effects on growth, behavior, or survival of specified target living systems. Toxicity is often defined with respect to bioassays (cultured cell and tissue lines, or whole animals, including humans), and thus may lead to erroneous inferences about the functional role of these compounds in situ in marine environments. The high global incidences of human poisoning due to the consumption of seafood contaminated with marine toxins, or exposure to poisonous or venomous creatures, underscore the critical need for studies to protect human health. Such research, however, provides little insight into the function and evolution of these toxins and their biosynthetic pathways.

Marine toxins are commonly assumed to have evolved as a mechanism for chemical defence against predation, to facilitate prey capture, or to modulate competitive interactions, but proof of this toxic strategy is frequently lacking. These bioactive substances may play more subtle and multivariate roles in species interactions, diversity and food web dynamics, rather than exclusively as “toxins.” The chemical ecology of marine toxins represents a frontier area of research and is worthy of more intensive investigation.

This Special Issue particularly welcomes contributions on defining linkages between bioactivity as determined in the laboratory and in marine micro- and mesocosms and the putative role of natural toxins in marine ecosystems.

Prof. Allan Cembella
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • chemical ecology
  • allelopathy
  • marine toxin
  • ecotoxicology
  • phycotoxins
  • marine bioactives

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 3810 KiB  
Article
On the Hunt for New Toxin Families Produced by a Mediterranean Strain of the Benthic Dinoflagellate Ostreopsis cf. ovata
by Eva Ternon, Evgenia Glukhov, Emily Trytten, Rodolphe Lemée and William H. Gerwick
Toxins 2022, 14(4), 234; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins14040234 - 23 Mar 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2348
Abstract
Ostreopsis cf. ovata is a benthic dinoflagellate known to produce palytoxin (PLTX) and its analogues. Recent investigations suggested the production of unknown toxins by a Mediterranean strain. In the present work, two new families of toxins, potentially novel in their structures, were [...] Read more.
Ostreopsis cf. ovata is a benthic dinoflagellate known to produce palytoxin (PLTX) and its analogues. Recent investigations suggested the production of unknown toxins by a Mediterranean strain. In the present work, two new families of toxins, potentially novel in their structures, were purified from this same Mediterranean strain of Ostreopsis cf. ovata. The low amount of material isolated only allowed for acquisition of high-resolution mass spectrometry data and the evaluation of their cytotoxicity to human lung cancer cells. Based on their HRMS data, none of these new compounds appear to be close PLTX analogues, although their mass spectra suggest poly-hydroxylated long chain compounds of high molecular weight (1370–2143 Da). The cell cytotoxicity concentrations (CC50) of these new purified toxins ranged between 0.68 and 3.12 µg/mL, and this was enhanced when they were tested as mixtures, suggesting synergistic effects of Ostreopsis toxins. The two families of compounds were named the liguriatoxins (LGTX) and rivieratoxins (RVTX), with each family containing three members. Additional work on purification is needed to fully characterize the structures of these six new dinoflagellate toxins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactivity and Chemical Ecological Interactions of Marine Toxins)
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23 pages, 2391 KiB  
Article
Cell Death and Metabolic Stress in Gymnodinium catenatum Induced by Allelopathy
by Leyberth José Fernández-Herrera, Christine Johanna Band-Schmidt, Tania Zenteno-Savín, Ignacio Leyva-Valencia, Claudia Judith Hernández-Guerrero and Mauricio Muñoz-Ochoa
Toxins 2021, 13(7), 506; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13070506 - 20 Jul 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3170
Abstract
Allelopathy between phytoplankton species can promote cellular stress and programmed cell death (PCD). The raphidophyte Chattonella marina var. marina, and the dinoflagellates Margalefidinium polykrikoides and Gymnodinium impudicum have allelopathic effects on Gymnodinium catenatum; however, the physiological mechanisms are unknown. We evaluated [...] Read more.
Allelopathy between phytoplankton species can promote cellular stress and programmed cell death (PCD). The raphidophyte Chattonella marina var. marina, and the dinoflagellates Margalefidinium polykrikoides and Gymnodinium impudicum have allelopathic effects on Gymnodinium catenatum; however, the physiological mechanisms are unknown. We evaluated whether the allelopathic effect promotes cellular stress and activates PCD in G. catenatum. Cultures of G. catenatum were exposed to cell-free media of C. marina var. marina, M. polykrikoides and G. impudicum. The mortality, superoxide radical (O2●−) production, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, protein content, and caspase-3 activity were quantified. Mortality (between 57 and 79%) was registered in G. catenatum after exposure to cell-free media of the three species. The maximal O2●− production occurred with C. marina var. marina cell-free media. The highest TBARS levels and SOD activity in G. catenatum were recorded with cell-free media from G. impudicum. The highest protein content was recorded with cell-free media from M. polykrikoides. All cell-free media caused an increase in the activity of caspase-3. These results indicate that the allelopathic effect in G. catenatum promotes cell stress and caspase-3 activation, as a signal for the induction of programmed cell death. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactivity and Chemical Ecological Interactions of Marine Toxins)
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12 pages, 1857 KiB  
Article
Impacts of the Invasive Seaweed Asparagopsis armata Exudate on Energetic Metabolism of Rock Pool Invertebrates
by Carla O. Silva, Sara C. Novais, Amadeu M. V. M. Soares, Carlos Barata and Marco F. L. Lemos
Toxins 2021, 13(1), 15; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13010015 - 25 Dec 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4954
Abstract
The marine red algae Asparagopsis armata is an invasive species gaining competitive advantage by releasing large amounts of toxic compounds to the surrounding invaded area. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of this invasive seaweed on marine invertebrates [...] Read more.
The marine red algae Asparagopsis armata is an invasive species gaining competitive advantage by releasing large amounts of toxic compounds to the surrounding invaded area. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of this invasive seaweed on marine invertebrates by exposing the common prawn Palaemon elegans and the marine snail Gibbula umbilicalis to the exudate of this seaweed. The seaweed was collected and placed in a tank for 12 h in the dark in a 1:10 ratio. Afterwards the seawater medium containing the released secondary metabolites was collected for further testing. Lethal and sublethal effects of A. armata were investigated. Biochemical biomarker responses associated with energy metabolism (lactate dehydrogenase, LDH; electron transport system activity, ETS; lipid, protein and carbohydrate content) were analysed. The biomarker responses showed physiological status impairment of invertebrates after exposure to low concentrations of this algal exudate. The highest concentrations of exudate significantly increased lipid content in both organisms. In the shrimp, protein content, ETS, and LDH were also significantly increased. By contrast, these parameters were significantly decreased in G. umbilicalis. A behavioural impairment was also observed in G. umbilicalis exposed to A. armata exudate, reducing feeding consumption. These results represent an important step in the research of natural toxic exudates released to the environment and prospective effects of this seaweed in invaded communities under increasing global change scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactivity and Chemical Ecological Interactions of Marine Toxins)
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39 pages, 1840 KiB  
Review
Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins
by Marc Long, Bernd Krock, Justine Castrec and Urban Tillmann
Toxins 2021, 13(12), 905; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13120905 - 16 Dec 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3938
Abstract
Various species of Alexandrium can produce a number of bioactive compounds, e.g., paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), spirolides, gymnodimines, goniodomins, and also uncharacterised bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs). The latter metabolites are released into the environment and affect a large range of organisms (from protists [...] Read more.
Various species of Alexandrium can produce a number of bioactive compounds, e.g., paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), spirolides, gymnodimines, goniodomins, and also uncharacterised bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs). The latter metabolites are released into the environment and affect a large range of organisms (from protists to fishes and mammalian cell lines). These compounds mediate allelochemical interactions, have anti-grazing and anti-parasitic activities, and have a potentially strong structuring role for the dynamic of Alexandrium blooms. In many studies evaluating the effects of Alexandrium on marine organisms, only the classical toxins were reported and the involvement of BECs was not considered. A lack of information on the presence/absence of BECs in experimental strains is likely the cause of contrasting results in the literature that render impossible a distinction between PSTs and BECs effects. We review the knowledge on Alexandrium BEC, (i.e., producing species, target cells, physiological effects, detection methods and molecular candidates). Overall, we highlight the need to identify the nature of Alexandrium BECs and urge further research on the chemical interactions according to their ecological importance in the planktonic chemical warfare and due to their potential collateral damage to a wide range of organisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactivity and Chemical Ecological Interactions of Marine Toxins)
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20 pages, 1862 KiB  
Review
Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PST)-Transforming Enzymes: A Review
by Mariana I. C. Raposo, Maria Teresa S. R. Gomes, Maria João Botelho and Alisa Rudnitskaya
Toxins 2020, 12(5), 344; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins12050344 - 22 May 2020
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 5850
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are a group of toxins that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning through blockage of voltage-gated sodium channels. PSTs are produced by prokaryotic freshwater cyanobacteria and eukaryotic marine dinoflagellates. Proliferation of toxic algae species can lead to harmful algal blooms, during [...] Read more.
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are a group of toxins that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning through blockage of voltage-gated sodium channels. PSTs are produced by prokaryotic freshwater cyanobacteria and eukaryotic marine dinoflagellates. Proliferation of toxic algae species can lead to harmful algal blooms, during which seafood accumulate high levels of PSTs, posing a health threat to consumers. The existence of PST-transforming enzymes was first remarked due to the divergence of PST profiles and concentrations between contaminated bivalves and toxigenic organisms. Later, several enzymes involved in PST transformation, synthesis and elimination have been identified. The knowledge of PST-transforming enzymes is necessary for understanding the processes of toxin accumulation and depuration in mollusk bivalves. Furthermore, PST-transforming enzymes facilitate the obtainment of pure analogues of toxins as in natural sources they are present in a mixture. Pure compounds are of interest for the development of drug candidates and as analytical reference materials. PST-transforming enzymes can also be employed for the development of analytical tools for toxin detection. This review summarizes the PST-transforming enzymes identified so far in living organisms from bacteria to humans, with special emphasis on bivalves, cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates, and discusses enzymes’ biological functions and potential practical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactivity and Chemical Ecological Interactions of Marine Toxins)
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