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Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2023) | Viewed by 25660

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Prof. Dr. Maciej Gajęcki

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Guest Editor

Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland
Interests: mycotoxins; detection; feed; mycotoxicosis; diagnostics; animal pathology; human pathology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Magdalena Gajęcka

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Guest Editor

Department of Veterinary Prevention and Feed Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, Oczapowskiego 13, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland
Interests: mycotoxins; detection; feed; low doses; mycotoxicosis; diagnostics; animal pathology; human pathology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and their metabolites are among the most frequently encountered mycotoxins in plant materials. Their presence compromises the health quality of foodstuffs and feedstuffs, and increases the risk of ischemia and reperfusion injury, stress-related intestinal disorders, as well as endocrine, metabolic, and immune disorders. These problems are resolved on an individual basis by selecting the appropriate combination of measures. The symptoms and health consequences of high mycotoxin doses are generally known. However, small doses can cause disease without clinical symptoms or they can interact with the host body at various stages of life. Due to this ambiguous dose–response relationship, the symptoms associated with high mycotoxin doses cannot be easily extrapolated to low doses. The interactions between mycotoxins and between mycotoxins and physiological processes in cells, tissues, and microorganisms are also problematic. Mycotoxins present in feed come into direct contact with the intestinal mucosa. A healthy gastrointestinal tract comprises active cells and tissues with high protein metabolic turnover rates. Cells and tissues are often targeted by mycotoxins. Some mycotoxins inhibit protein synthesis. For instance, deoxynivalenol ingested in small doses inhibits the uptake of substrates responsible for protein transport across intestinal walls. On the other hand, zearalenone has estrogenic properties, and low doses of this mycotoxin stimulate proliferative processes. Mycotoxins also influence the activity of local and general immune systems, and their adverse effects become manifested in immunosuppressed hosts. Mycotoxins can also suppress the host’s immune system, thus increasing the risk of disorders caused by microorganisms, intestinal enzymes, and other toxins in the digestive tract without the clinical symptoms that are characteristic of mycotoxicoses.

To address these important concerns, we will be leading the Special Issue of Toxins, titled “The Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health”, as Guest Editors. We invite you to submit manuscripts to this issue.

Prof. Dr. Maciej T. Gajęcki
Prof. Dr. Magdalena Gajęcka
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

mycotoxins
detection
feed
low doses
mycotoxicosis
diagnostics
gastroenterology
endocrinology
animal pathology

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 240 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

The Multidirectional Influence of Feed-Borne Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on Animal Health

by Maciej T. Gajęcki and Magdalena Gajęcka

Toxins 2023, 15(7), 419; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins15070419 - 28 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 736

Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites which pose a significant threat for global food and feed security [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

Research

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16 pages, 7014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immunohistochemical Expression (IE) of Oestrogen Receptors in the Intestines of Prepubertal Gilts Exposed to Zearalenone

by Magdalena Gajęcka, Iwona Otrocka-Domagała, Paweł Brzuzan, Michał Dąbrowski, Sylwia Lisieska-Żołnierczyk, Łukasz Zielonka and Maciej Tadeusz Gajęcki

Toxins 2023, 15(2), 122; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins15020122 - 02 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1120

Abstract

This study was conducted to determine if a low monotonic dose of zearalenone (ZEN) affects the immunohistochemical expression (IE) of oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and oestrogen receptor beta (ERβ) in the intestines of sexually immature gilts. Group C (control group; n = 18) gilts were given a placebo. Group E (experimental group; n = 18) gilts were dosed orally with 40 μg ZEN /kg body weight (BW), each day before morning feeding. Samples of intestinal tissue were collected post-mortem six times. The samples were stained to analyse the IE of ERα and Erβ in the scanned slides. The strongest response was observed in ERα in the duodenum (90.387—average % of cells with ERα expression) and in ERβ in the descending colon (84.329—average % of cells with ERβ expression); the opposite response was recorded in the caecum (2.484—average % of cells with ERα expression) and the ascending colon (2.448—average % of cells with ERα expression); on the first two dates of exposure, the digestive tract had to adapt to ZEN in feed. The results of this study, supported by a mechanistic interpretation of previous research findings, suggest that ZEN performs numerous functions in the digestive tract. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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18 pages, 2222 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to Low Zearalenone Doses and Changes in the Homeostasis and Concentrations of Endogenous Hormones in Selected Steroid-Sensitive Tissues in Pre-Pubertal Gilts

by Magdalena Gajęcka, Łukasz Zielonka, Andrzej Babuchowski and Maciej Tadeusz Gajęcki

Toxins 2022, 14(11), 790; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins14110790 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1318

Abstract

This study was undertaken to analyze whether prolonged exposure to low-dose zearalenone (ZEN) mycotoxicosis affects the concentrations of ZEN, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) in selected reproductive system tissues (ovaries, uterine horn—ovarian and uterine sections, and the middle part of the cervix), the hypothalamus, and pituitary gland, or the concentrations of selected steroid hormones in pre-pubertal gilts. For 42 days, gilts were administered per os different ZEN doses (MABEL dose [5 µg/kg BW], the highest NOAEL dose [10 µg/kg BW], and the lowest LOAEL dose [15 µg/kg BW]). Tissue samples were collected on days seven, twenty-one, and forty-two of exposure to ZEN (exposure days D1, D2, and D3, respectively). Blood for the analyses of estradiol and progesterone concentrations was collected in vivo on six dates at seven-day intervals (on analytical dates D1–D6). The analyses revealed that both ZEN and its metabolites were accumulated in the examined tissues. On successive analytical dates, the rate of mycotoxin accumulation in the studied tissues decreased gradually by 50% and proportionally to the administered ZEN dose. A hierarchical visualization revealed that values of the carry-over factor (CF) were highest on exposure day D2. In most groups and on most exposure days, the highest CF values were found in the middle part of the cervix, followed by the ovaries, both sections of the uterine horn, and the hypothalamus. These results suggest that ZEN, α-ZEL, and β-ZEL were deposited in all analyzed tissues despite exposure to very low ZEN doses. The presence of these undesirable compounds in the examined tissues can inhibit the somatic development of the reproductive system and compromise neuroendocrine coordination of reproductive competence in pre-pubertal gilts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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13 pages, 1745 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Deoxynivalenol Affect Amoxicillin and Doxycycline Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract? Ex Vivo Study on Swine Jejunum Mucosa Explants

by Marta Mendel, Wojciech Karlik, Urszula Latek, Magdalena Chłopecka, Ewelina Nowacka-Kozak, Katarzyna Pietruszka and Piotr Jedziniak

Toxins 2022, 14(11), 743; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins14110743 - 29 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2399

Abstract

The presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) in feed may increase intestinal barrier permeability. Disturbance of the intestinal barrier integrity may affect the absorption of antibiotics used in animals. Since the bioavailability of orally administered antibiotics significantly affects their efficacy and safety, it was decided to evaluate how DON influences the absorption of the most commonly used antibiotics in pigs, i.e., amoxicillin (AMX) and doxycycline (DOX). The studies were conducted using jejunal explants from adult pigs. Explants were incubated in Ussing chambers, in which a buffer containing DON (30 µg/mL), AMX (50 µg/mL), DOX (30 µg/mL), a combination of AMX + DON, or a combination of DOX + DON was used. Changes in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), the flux of transcellular and intracellular transport markers, and the flux of antibiotics across explants were measured. DON increased the permeability of small intestine explants, expressed by a reduction in TEER and an intensification of transcellular marker transport. DON did not affect AMX transport, but it accelerated DOX transport by approximately five times. The results suggest that DON inhibits the efflux transport of DOX to the intestinal lumen, and thus significantly changes its absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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21 pages, 1553 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Carry-Over of Zearalenone and Its Metabolites to Intestinal Tissues and the Expression of CYP1A1 and GSTπ1 in the Colon of Gilts before Puberty

by Magdalena Mróz, Magdalena Gajęcka, Paweł Brzuzan, Sylwia Lisieska-Żołnierczyk, Dawid Leski, Łukasz Zielonka and Maciej T. Gajęcki

Toxins 2022, 14(5), 354; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins14050354 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1716

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether low doses of zearalenone (ZEN) affect the carry-over of ZEN and its metabolites to intestinal tissues and the expression of CYP1A1 and GSTπ1 in the large intestine. Prepubertal gilts (with a BW of up to 14.5 kg) were exposed in group ZEN to daily ZEN5 doses of 5 μg/kg BW (n = 15); in group ZEN10, 10 μg/kg BW (n = 15); in group ZEN15, 15 μg/kg BW (n = 15); or were administered a placebo (group C, n = 15) throughout the experiment. After euthanasia, tissues were sampled on exposure days 7, 21, and 42 (D1, D2, and D3, respectively). The results confirmed that the administered ZEN doses (LOAEL, NOAEL, and MABEL) were appropriate to reliably assess the carry-over of ZEN. Based on the observations made during 42 days of exposure to pure ZEN, it can be hypothesized that all mycotoxins (ZEN, α-zearalenol, and β-zearalenol) contribute to a balance between intestinal cells and the expression of selected genes encoding enzymes that participate in biotransformation processes in the large intestine; modulate feminization processes in prepubertal gilts; and elicit flexible, adaptive responses of the macroorganism to mycotoxin exposure at the analyzed doses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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16 pages, 1123 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Practical Application of Urinary Zearalenone Monitoring System for Feed Hygiene Management of a Japanese Black Cattle Breeding Herd—The Relationship between Monthly Anti-Müllerian Hormone and Serum Amyloid A Concentrations

by Oky Setyo Widodo, Makoto Etoh, Emiko Kokushi, Seiichi Uno, Osamu Yamato, Dhidhi Pambudi, Hiroaki Okawa, Masayasu Taniguchi, Mirni Lamid and Mitsuhiro Takagi

Toxins 2022, 14(2), 143; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins14020143 - 16 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2498

Abstract

This study addresses an advantageous application of a urinary zearalenone (ZEN) monitoring system not only for surveillance of ZEN exposure at the production site of breeding cows but also for follow-up monitoring after improvement of feeds provided to the herd. As biomarkers of effect, serum levels of the anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) and serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations were used. Based on the results of urinary ZEN measurement, two cows from one herd had urinary ZEN concentrations which were two orders of magnitude higher (ZEN: 1.34 mg/kg, sterigmatocystin (STC): 0.08 mg/kg in roughages) than the levels of all cows from three other herds (ZEN: not detected, STC: not detected in roughages). For the follow-up monitoring of the herd with positive ZEN and STC exposure, urine, blood, and roughage samples were collected from five cows monthly for one year. A monitoring series in the breeding cattle herd indicated that feed concentrations were not necessarily reflected in urinary concentrations; urinary monitoring assay by ELISA may be a simple and accurate method that reflects the exposure/absorption of ZEN. Additionally, although the ZEN exposure level appeared not to be critical compared with the Japanese ZEN limitation in dietary feeds, a negative regression trend between the ZEN and AMH concentrations was observed, indicating that only at extremely universal mycotoxin exposure levels, ZEN exposure may affect the number of antral follicles in cattle. A negative regression trend between the ZEN and SAA concentrations could also be demonstrated, possibly indicating the innate immune suppression caused by low-level chronic ZEN exposure. Finally, significant differences (p = 0.0487) in calving intervals between pre-ZEN monitoring (mean ± SEM: 439.0 ± 41.2) and post-ZEN monitoring (349.9 ± 6.9) periods were observed in the monitored five cows. These preliminary results indicate that the urinary ZEN monitoring system may be a useful practical tool not only for detecting contaminated herds under field conditions but also provides an initial look at the effects of long-term chronic ZEN/STC (or other co-existing mycotoxins) exposure on herd productivity and fertility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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19 pages, 951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Low Doses of Zearalenone (ZEN) on the Bone Marrow Microenvironment and Haematological Parameters of Blood Plasma in Pre-Pubertal Gilts

by Magdalena Mróz, Magdalena Gajęcka, Katarzyna E. Przybyłowicz, Tomasz Sawicki, Sylwia Lisieska-Żołnierczyk, Łukasz Zielonka and Maciej Tadeusz Gajęcki

Toxins 2022, 14(2), 105; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins14020105 - 29 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2457

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine whether low doses of zearalenone (ZEN) influence the carry-over of ZEN and its metabolites to the bone marrow microenvironment and, consequently, haematological parameters. Pre-pubertal gilts (with a body weight of up to 14.5 kg) were exposed to daily ZEN doses of 5 μg/kg BW (group ZEN5, n = 15), 10 μg/kg BW (group ZEN10, n = 15), 15 μg/kg BW (group ZEN15, n = 15), or were administered a placebo (group C, n = 15) throughout the entire experiment. Bone marrow was sampled on three dates (exposure dates 7, 21, and 42—after slaughter) and blood for haematological analyses was sampled on 10 dates. Significant differences in the analysed haematological parameters (WBC White Blood Cells, MONO—Monocytes, NEUT—Neutrophils, LYMPH—Lymphocytes, LUC—Large Unstained Cells, RBC—Red Blood Cells, HGB—Haemoglobin, HCT—Haematocrit, MCH—Mean Corpuscular Volume, MCHC—Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentrations, PLT—Platelet Count and MPV—Mean Platelet Volume) were observed between groups. The results of the experiment suggest that exposure to low ZEN doses triggered compensatory and adaptive mechanisms, stimulated the local immune system, promoted eryptosis, intensified mycotoxin biotransformation processes in the liver, and produced negative correlations between mycotoxin concentrations and selected haematological parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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12 pages, 1921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Zearalenone and Its Metabolites in the Blood of High-Yielding Dairy Cows at Selected Collection Sites in Various Disease States

by Wojciech Barański, Magdalena Gajęcka, Łukasz Zielonka, Magdalena Mróz, Ewa Onyszek, Katarzyna E. Przybyłowicz, Arkadiusz Nowicki, Andrzej Babuchowski and Maciej T. Gajęcki

Toxins 2021, 13(7), 446; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13070446 - 28 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2409

Abstract

Zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites, alpha-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and beta-zearalenol (β-ZEL), are ubiquitous in plant materials used as feed components in dairy cattle diets. The aim of this study was to confirm the occurrence of ZEN and its selected metabolites in blood samples collected from different sites in the hepatic portal system (posthepatic–external jugular vein EJV; prehepatic–abdominal subcutaneous vein ASV and median caudal vein MCV) of dairy cows diagnosed with mastitis, ovarian cysts and pyometra. The presence of mycotoxins in the blood plasma was determined with the use of combined separation methods involving immunoaffinity columns, a liquid chromatography system and a mass spectrometry system. The parent compound was detected in all samples collected from diseased cows, whereas α-ZEL and β-ZEL were not identified in any samples, or their concentrations were below the limit of detection (LOD). Zearalenone levels were highest in cows with pyometra, where the percentage share of average ZEN concentrations reached 44%. Blood sampling sites were arranged in the following ascending order based on ZEN concentrations: EJV (10.53 pg/mL, 44.07% of the samples collected from this site), ASV (14.20 pg/mL, 49.59% of the samples) and MCV (26.67 pg/mL, 67.35% of the samples). The results of the study indicate that blood samples for toxicological analyses should be collected from the MCV (prehepatic vessel) of clinically healthy cows and/or cows with subclinical ZEN mycotoxicosis. This sampling site increases the probability of correct diagnosis of subclinical ZEN mycotoxicosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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16 pages, 1180 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concentration of Zearalenone, Alpha-Zearalenol and Beta-Zearalenol in the Myocardium and the Results of Isometric Analyses of the Coronary Artery in Prepubertal Gilts

by Magdalena Gajęcka, Michał S. Majewski, Łukasz Zielonka, Waldemar Grzegorzewski, Ewa Onyszek, Sylwia Lisieska-Żołnierczyk, Jerzy Juśkiewicz, Andrzej Babuchowski and Maciej T. Gajęcki

Toxins 2021, 13(6), 396; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13060396 - 02 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2872

Abstract

The carry-over of zearalenone (ZEN) to the myocardium and its effects on coronary vascular reactivity in vivo have not been addressed in the literature to date. Therefore, the objective of this study was to verify the hypothesis that low ZEN doses (MABEL, NOAEL and LOAEL) administered per os to prepubertal gilts for 21 days affect the accumulation of ZEN, α-ZEL and β-ZEL in the myocardium and the reactivity of the porcine coronary arteries to vasoconstrictors: acetylcholine, potassium chloride and vasodilator sodium nitroprusside. The contractile response to acetylcholine in the presence of a cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitor, indomethacin and / or an endothelial nitric oxide synthase (e-NOS) inhibitor, L-NAME was also studied. The results of this study indicate that the carry-over of ZEN and its metabolites to the myocardium is a highly individualized process that occurs even at very low mycotoxin concentrations. The concentrations of the accumulated ZEN metabolites are inversely proportional to each other due to biotransformation processes. The levels of vasoconstrictors, acetylcholine and potassium chloride, were examined in the left anterior descending branch of the porcine coronary artery after oral administration of ZEN. The LOAEL dose clearly decreased vasoconstriction in response to both potassium chloride and acetylcholine (P < 0.05 for all values) and increased vasodilation in the presence of sodium nitroprusside (P = 0.021). The NOAEL dose significantly increased vasoconstriction caused by acetylcholine (P < 0.04), whereas the MABEL dose did not cause significant changes in the vascular response. Unlike higher doses of ZEN, 5 μg/kg had no negative influence on the vascular system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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Review

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17 pages, 1391 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biosensors for Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone Determination in Feed Quality Control

by Krisztina Majer-Baranyi, Nóra Adányi and András Székács

Toxins 2021, 13(7), 499; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13070499 - 17 Jul 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3683

Abstract

Mycotoxin contamination of cereals used for feed can cause intoxication, especially in farm animals; therefore, efficient analytical tools for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of toxic fungal metabolites in feed are required. Current trends in food/feed analysis are focusing on the application of biosensor technologies that offer fast and highly selective and sensitive detection with minimal sample treatment and reagents required. The article presents an overview of the recent progress of the development of biosensors for deoxynivalenol and zearalenone determination in cereals and feed. Novel biosensitive materials and highly sensitive detection methods applied for the sensors and the application of these sensors to food/feed products, the limit, and the time of detection are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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Other

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12 pages, 476 KiB

Open AccessStudy Protocol

Correlations between Low Doses of Zearalenone, Its Carryover Factor and Estrogen Receptor Expression in Different Segments of the Intestines in Pre-Pubertal Gilts—A Study Protocol

by Magdalena Gajęcka, Magdalena Mróz, Paweł Brzuzan, Ewa Onyszek, Łukasz Zielonka, Karolina Lipczyńska-Ilczuk, Katarzyna E. Przybyłowicz, Andrzej Babuchowski and Maciej T. Gajęcki

Toxins 2021, 13(6), 379; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13060379 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3093

Abstract

Plant materials can be contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins and their derivatives, whose toxic effects on humans and animals may remain subclinical. Zearalenone (ZEN), a low-molecular-weight compound, is produced by molds in crop plants as a secondary metabolite. The objective of this study will be to analyze the in vivo correlations between very low monotonic doses of ZEN (5, 10, and 15 μg ZEN/kg body weight—BW for 42 days) and the carryover of this mycotoxin and its selected metabolites from the intestinal contents to the intestinal walls, the mRNA expression of estrogen receptor alfa (ERα) and estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) genes, and the mRNA expression of genes modulating selected colon enzymes (CYP1A1 and GSTP1) in the intestinal mucosa of pre-pubertal gilts. An in vivo experiment will be performed on 60 clinically healthy animals with initial BW of 14.5 ± 2 kg. The gilts will be randomly divided into a control group (group C, n = 15) and three experimental groups (group ZEN5, group ZEN10, and group ZEN15; n = 15). Group ZEN5 will be administered per os 5 μg ZEN/kg BW (MABEL), group ZEN10—10 μg ZEN/kg BW (NOAEL), and group ZEN15—15 µg ZEN/kg BW (low LOAEL). In each group, five animals will be euthanized on analytical dates 1 (exposure day 7), 2 (exposure day 21), and 3 (exposure day 42). Samples for in vitro analyses will be collected from an intestinal segment resected from the following regions: the third (horizontal) part of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon. The experimental material will be collected under special conditions, and it will be transported to specialist laboratories where samples will be obtained for further analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone in Feed on Animal Health)

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