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Toxins
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Mycotoxins, Food Safety and Metrology
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Mycotoxins, Food Safety and Metrology

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 18911

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Emmanuel K. Tangni

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Organic Contaminants and Additives, Sciensano, 3080 Tervuren, Belgium
Interests: emerging mycotoxin; metrological tool development; collaborative trial; exposure and risk assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Mycotoxins and Fungi (Pre-Harvest/Post Harvest)

  • Biodiversity and toxigenic fungi monitoring
  • Biocontrol

Mycotoxins and Food/Feed Contamination (Post-Harvest and Food/Feed Processing)

  • Occurrence
  • Mycotoxin monitoring and analysis
  • Post-harvest intervention strategies
  • Detoxification strategies, food processing
  • Safe use of mycotoxin contaminated biomasses

Reference Material and Metrology

  • Development of reference materials
  • Collaborative study

Mycotoxins and Human/Animal Health

  • Animal health and toxicology
  • Human health and toxicology
  • Toxicokinetics
  • In vitro and in vivo mycotoxin detoxifying agents

Dr. Emmanuel K. Tangni
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • mycotoxin
  • analytical methods
  • reference materials
  • proficiency testing
  • reduction
  • exposure and risk assessment
  • toxicology and mycotoxinology

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 1980 KiB  
Article
Production of Alternaria Toxins in Yellow Peach (Amygdalus persica) upon Artificial Inoculation with Alternaria alternate
by Jiajia Meng, Wenbo Guo, Zhihui Zhao, Zhiqi Zhang, Dongxia Nie, Emmanuel K. Tangni and Zheng Han
Toxins 2021, 13(9), 656; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13090656 - 15 Sep 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2728
Abstract
The yellow peach (Amygdalus persica), an important fruit in China, is highly susceptible to infection by Alternaria sp., leading to potential health risks and economic losses. In the current study, firstly, yellow peaches were artificially inoculated with Alternariaalternate. [...] Read more.
The yellow peach (Amygdalus persica), an important fruit in China, is highly susceptible to infection by Alternaria sp., leading to potential health risks and economic losses. In the current study, firstly, yellow peaches were artificially inoculated with Alternariaalternate. Then, the fruits were stored at 4 °C and 28 °C to simulate the current storage conditions that consumers use, and the Alternaria toxins (ATs) contents from different parts of the fruits were analyzed via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The results showed that the growth of A. alternate and the ATs production were dramatically affected by the storage temperature. At 28 °C, the fungi grew rapidly and the lesion diameter reached about 4.0 cm within 15 days of inoculation, while, at 4 °C, the fungal growth was noticeably inhibited, with no significant change in the lesion diameter. To our surprise, high contents of ATs were produced under both storage conditions even though the fungal growth was suppressed. With an increase in the incubation time, the amounts of ATs showed a steady tendency to increase in most cases. Remarkably, alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) were detected in the rotten tissue and also in the surrounding tissue, while a large amount of TeA could also be found in the healthy tissue. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the production of ATs by the infection of Alternaria sp. in yellow peach fruits via artificial inoculation under regulated conditions, and, based on the evidence herein, it is recommended that ATs be included in monitoring and control programs of yellow peach management and food safety administration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins, Food Safety and Metrology)
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16 pages, 3804 KiB  
Article
Organisation of Multi-Mycotoxin Proficiency Tests: Evaluation of the Performances of the Laboratories Using the Triple A Rating Approach
by Emmanuel K. Tangni, Bart Huybrechts, Julien Masquelier and Els Van Hoeck
Toxins 2021, 13(9), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13090591 - 24 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1979
Abstract
In accordance with the International Standard Organization ISO 17043, two proficiency tests (PTs) for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2); deoxynivalenol; fumonisins FB1, FB2, and B3; ochratoxin [...] Read more.
In accordance with the International Standard Organization ISO 17043, two proficiency tests (PTs) for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2); deoxynivalenol; fumonisins FB1, FB2, and B3; ochratoxin A, the T-2 toxin; and the HT-2 toxin were conducted in 2019 and 2020 using cornflakes and rusk flours that were prepared in house. The homogeneity and the stability of these materials were verified according to the criteria laid down in ISO 13528 using randomly selected samples. Most of the targeted toxins were found to be homogenously distributed in both materials with no significant changes during the timescale of the PTs. Next, the materials were distributed to approximately 25 participating laboratories from Europe, Canada, and the United States. The obtained datasets were computed using robust statistics. The outliers were checked and removed, and the toxin concentrations were assigned as the consensus value of the results of the participants at Horwitz ratios <1.2. The z scores were generated for all mycotoxins, and the results were pooled to calculate the relative sum of squared z scores (SZ2) indexes and were clustered according to the triple A rating. Overall, at least 80% of the participating laboratories achieved good and acceptable performances. The most frequent categories assigned to good performances (SZ2 ≤ 2) were AAA (51%) and BAA (13%). Clusters of BBA + CBA (6%) included laboratories reporting acceptable z scores <90% of the total z scores for less than 90% or 50% of the mycotoxins targeted in the 2 matrices. The triple A rating seems to be appropriate in evaluating the performances of laboratories involved in multi-mycotoxin analyses. Accredited and non-accredited analytical methods achieved good and acceptable performances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins, Food Safety and Metrology)
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17 pages, 2692 KiB  
Article
A Targeted UHPLC-MS/MS Method Validated for the Quantification of Ergot Alkaloids in Cereal-Based Baby Food from the Belgian Market
by Bart Huybrechts, Svetlana V. Malysheva and Julien Masquelier
Toxins 2021, 13(8), 531; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13080531 - 29 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2251
Abstract
Following pending new legislation in the European Union setting a maximum of 20 ng g−1 for the total sum of ergot alkaloids in dry cereal-based baby food, a new UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed. It is suitable for the quantification of six ergot [...] Read more.
Following pending new legislation in the European Union setting a maximum of 20 ng g−1 for the total sum of ergot alkaloids in dry cereal-based baby food, a new UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed. It is suitable for the quantification of six ergot alkaloids: Ergocornine, ergocristine, ergometrine, ergosine, ergotamine, α-ergocryptine, and their corresponding epimers. The method is able to reliably detect individual ergot alkaloids at a level as low as 0.5 ng g−1. The method uses a modified QuEChERS extraction approach before UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. The method showed good sensitivity, accuracy, and precision. It has been applied to 49 samples from the Belgian market. In 26 samples, not a single ergot alkaloid was detected while in 23 out of 49 samples at least one ergot alkaloid was detected with 2 samples containing 12 ergot alkaloids. Ergometrine was the alkaloid most frequently detected i.e., 16 out of 49 samples. Only one sample, testing positive for all 12 ergot alkaloids, would be non-conforming to the newly proposed Maximum Residue Level (MRL). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins, Food Safety and Metrology)
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14 pages, 2834 KiB  
Article
Citrinin Determination in Food and Food Supplements by LC-MS/MS: Development and Use of Reference Materials in an International Collaborative Study
by Emmanuel K. Tangni, François Van Hove, Bart Huybrechts, Julien Masquelier, Karine Vandermeiren and Els Van Hoeck
Toxins 2021, 13(4), 245; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13040245 - 30 Mar 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2088
Abstract
The development of incurred reference materials containing citrinin (CIT) and their successful application in a method validation study (MVS) in order to harmonize CIT determination in food and food supplements are demonstrated. CIT-contaminated materials made of red yeast rice (RYR), wheat flour, and [...] Read more.
The development of incurred reference materials containing citrinin (CIT) and their successful application in a method validation study (MVS) in order to harmonize CIT determination in food and food supplements are demonstrated. CIT-contaminated materials made of red yeast rice (RYR), wheat flour, and Ginkgo biloba leaves (GBL), as well as food supplements made of red yeast rice (FS-RYR) and Ginkgo biloba leaves (FS-GBL), were manufactured in-house via fungal cultivation on collected raw materials. The homogeneity and stability from randomly selected containers were verified according to the ISO 13528. CIT was found to be homogenously distributed and stable in all contaminated materials, with no significant degradation during the timescale of the MVS when storage was performed up to +4 °C. Next, an MVS was organized with eighteen international laboratories using the provided standard operating procedure and 12 test materials, including three RYRs (blank, <50 µg/kg, <2000 µg/kg), two wheat flours (blank, <50 µg/kg), two GBL powders (blank, <50 µg/kg), three FS-RYRs (blank, <50 µg/kg, <2000 µg/kg), and two FS-GBLs (blank, <50 µg/kg). The results of seven CIT-incurred materials showed acceptable within-laboratory precision (RSDr) varying from 6.4% to 14.6% and between-laboratory precision (RSDR) varying from 10.2% to 37.3%. Evidenced by HorRat values < 2.0, the results of the collaborative trial demonstrated that the applied analytical method could be standardized. Furthermore, the appropriateness of producing CIT reference materials is an important step towards food and feed quality control systems and the organization of proficiency tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins, Food Safety and Metrology)
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17 pages, 669 KiB  
Article
Levels of Alternaria Toxins in Selected Food Commodities Including Green Coffee
by Claudia Mujahid, Marie-Claude Savoy, Quentin Baslé, Pei Mun Woo, Edith Chin Yean Ee, Pascal Mottier and Thomas Bessaire
Toxins 2020, 12(9), 595; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins12090595 - 15 Sep 2020
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3652
Abstract
Alternaria toxins are emerging mycotoxins, candidates for regulation by European Authorities. Therefore, highly sensitive, confirmatory, and reliable analytical methodologies are required for their monitoring in food. In that context, an isotope dilution LC-MS/MS method was developed for the analysis of five Alternaria toxins [...] Read more.
Alternaria toxins are emerging mycotoxins, candidates for regulation by European Authorities. Therefore, highly sensitive, confirmatory, and reliable analytical methodologies are required for their monitoring in food. In that context, an isotope dilution LC-MS/MS method was developed for the analysis of five Alternaria toxins (Altenuene, Alternariol, Alternariol monomethylether, Tentoxin, and Tenuazonic Acid) in a broad range of commodities including cereals and cereal-based products, tomato-based products, tree nuts, vegetable oils, dried fruits, cocoa, green coffee, spices, herbs, and tea. Validation data collected in two different laboratories demonstrated the robustness of the method. Underestimation of Tenuazonic Acid level in dry samples such as cereals was reported when inappropriate extraction solvent mixtures were used as currently done in several published methodologies. An investigation survey performed on 216 food items evidenced large variations of Alternaria toxins levels, in line with data reported in the last EFSA safety assessment. The analysis of 78 green coffee samples collected from 21 producing countries demonstrated that coffee is a negligible source of exposure to Alternaria toxins. Its wide scope of application, adequate sample throughput, and high sensitivity make this method fit for purpose for the regular monitoring of Alternaria toxins in foods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins, Food Safety and Metrology)
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Review

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20 pages, 770 KiB  
Review
Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone—Synergistic or Antagonistic Agri-Food Chain Co-Contaminants?
by Asmita Thapa, Karina A. Horgan, Blánaid White and Dermot Walls
Toxins 2021, 13(8), 561; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13080561 - 11 Aug 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4936
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) and Zearalenone (ZEN) are two commonly co-occurring mycotoxins produced by members of the genus Fusarium. As important food chain contaminants, these can adversely affect both human and animal health. Critically, as they are formed prior to harvesting, their occurrence cannot [...] Read more.
Deoxynivalenol (DON) and Zearalenone (ZEN) are two commonly co-occurring mycotoxins produced by members of the genus Fusarium. As important food chain contaminants, these can adversely affect both human and animal health. Critically, as they are formed prior to harvesting, their occurrence cannot be eliminated during food production, leading to ongoing contamination challenges. DON is one of the most commonly occurring mycotoxins and is found as a contaminant of cereal grains that are consumed by humans and animals. Consumption of DON-contaminated feed can result in vomiting, diarrhoea, refusal of feed, and reduced weight gain in animals. ZEN is an oestrogenic mycotoxin that has been shown to have a negative effect on the reproductive function of animals. Individually, their mode of action and impacts have been well-studied; however, their co-occurrence is less well understood. This common co-occurrence of DON and ZEN makes it a critical issue for the Agri-Food industry, with a fundamental understanding required to develop mitigation strategies. To address this issue, in this targeted review, we appraise what is known of the mechanisms of action of DON and ZEN with particular attention to studies that have assessed their toxic effects when present together. We demonstrate that parameters that impact toxicity include species and cell type, relative concentration, exposure time and administration methods, and we highlight additional research required to further elucidate mechanisms of action and mitigation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins, Food Safety and Metrology)
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