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Toxins
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Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed
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Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2017) | Viewed by 155766

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Ting Zhou

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Guelph Research and Development Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada
Interests: mycotoxin detoxification; microbial detoxification; trichothecene mycotoxins; deoxynivalenol; patulin
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites associated with adverse health and productivity consequences.  Annual costs related to mycotoxins occurrences in food/feed are continuing to rise, causing the international economy to lose billions of dollars.

After more than three decades of mycotoxin mitigation research, our understanding started to reach a pinnacle, where biological and enzymatic means can be used to address such toxins. Moreover, advances in food and feed processing techniques, coupled with state-of-the-art molecular research tools, are leading the way for optimized empirical and feasible solutions.

The focus of this Special Issue of Toxins will be on the most recent advances related to mitigating mycotoxin contamination in food and feed. A particular survey of recent microbial and enzymatic strategies will be highlighted. The most promising techniques in food/feed processing will also be encouraged in this context. Finally, a whole section on some selected promising research tools that have the potential to revolutionize this field will be included. Both research (in particular) and review articles proposing novelties or overview, respectively, are welcome.

Dr. Ting Zhou
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Microbial detoxification /degradation / transformation / conversion
  • Enzymatic detoxification /degradation / transformation / conversion    
  • Biological detoxification / mitigation / decontamination
  • Chemical detoxification /mitigation / decontamination
  • Physical detoxification /mitigation / decontamination
  • Toxicity of resulting metabolites 
  • Integrated mitigation
  • Methodology development

Published Papers (21 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 203 KiB  
Editorial
Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed
by Yousef I. Hassan and Ting Zhou
Toxins 2018, 10(3), 116; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins10030116 - 09 Mar 2018
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5079
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites associated with adverse human health and animal productivity consequences.[...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

2320 KiB  
Article
Modification of the Mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol Using Microorganisms Isolated from Environmental Samples
by Nina M. Wilson, Nicole McMaster, Dash Gantulga, Cara Soyars, Susan P. McCormick, Ken Knott, Ryan S. Senger and David G. Schmale
Toxins 2017, 9(4), 141; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9040141 - 15 Apr 2017
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5682
Abstract
The trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is a common contaminant of wheat, barley, and maize. New strategies are needed to reduce or eliminate DON in feed and food products. Microorganisms from plant and soil samples collected in Blacksburg, VA, USA, were screened by incubation [...] Read more.
The trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is a common contaminant of wheat, barley, and maize. New strategies are needed to reduce or eliminate DON in feed and food products. Microorganisms from plant and soil samples collected in Blacksburg, VA, USA, were screened by incubation in a mineral salt media containing 100 μg/mL DON and analysis by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Two mixed cultures derived from soil samples consistently decreased DON levels in assays using DON as the sole carbon source. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis indicated that 3-keto-4-deoxynivalenol was the major by-product of DON. Via 16S rRNA sequencing, these mixed cultures, including mostly members of the genera Acinetobacter, Leadbetterella, and Gemmata, were revealed. Incubation of one of these mixed cultures with wheat samples naturally contaminated with 7.1 μg/mL DON indicated nearly complete conversion of DON to the less toxic 3-epimer-DON (3-epi-DON). Our work extends previous studies that have demonstrated the potential for bioprospecting for microorganisms from the environment to remediate or modify mycotoxins for commercial applications, such as the reduction of mycotoxins in fuel ethanol co-products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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3171 KiB  
Article
Ameliorative Effects of Neutral Electrolyzed Water on Growth Performance, Biochemical Constituents, and Histopathological Changes in Turkey Poults during Aflatoxicosis
by Denise Gómez-Espinosa, Francisco Javier Cervantes-Aguilar, Juan Carlos Del Río-García, Tania Villarreal-Barajas, Alma Vázquez-Durán and Abraham Méndez-Albores
Toxins 2017, 9(3), 104; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9030104 - 14 Mar 2017
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5921
Abstract
Different in vitro and in silico approaches from our research group have demonstrated that neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) can be used to detoxify aflatoxins. The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the ability of NEW to detoxify B-aflatoxins (AFB1 and AFB [...] Read more.
Different in vitro and in silico approaches from our research group have demonstrated that neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) can be used to detoxify aflatoxins. The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the ability of NEW to detoxify B-aflatoxins (AFB1 and AFB2) in contaminated maize and to confirm detoxification in an in vivo experimental model. Batches of aflatoxin-contaminated maize were detoxified with NEW and mixed in commercial feed. A total of 240 6-day-old female large white Nicholas-700 turkey poults were randomly divided into four treatments of six replicates each (10 turkeys per replicate), which were fed ad libitum for two weeks with the following dietary treatments: (1) control feed containing aflatoxin-free maize (CONTROL); (2) feed containing the aflatoxin-contaminated maize (AF); (3) feed containing the aflatoxin-contaminated maize detoxified with NEW (AF + NEW); and (4) control feed containing aflatoxin-free maize treated with NEW (NEW). Compared to the control groups, turkey poults of the AF group significantly reduced body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio and mortality rate; whereas turkey poults of the AF + NEW group did not present significant differences on productive parameters. In addition, alterations in serum biochemical constituents, enzyme activities, relative organ weight, gross morphological changes and histopathological studies were significantly mitigated by the aflatoxin-detoxification procedure. From these results, it is concluded that the treatment of aflatoxin-contaminated maize with NEW provided reasonable protection against the effects caused by aflatoxins in young turkey poults. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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1960 KiB  
Article
Plasma-Based Degradation of Mycotoxins Produced by Fusarium, Aspergillus and Alternaria Species
by Lars Ten Bosch, Katharina Pfohl, Georg Avramidis, Stephan Wieneke, Wolfgang Viöl and Petr Karlovsky
Toxins 2017, 9(3), 97; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9030097 - 10 Mar 2017
Cited by 120 | Viewed by 11269
Abstract
The efficacy of cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) with ambient air as working gas for the degradation of selected mycotoxins was studied. Deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, enniatins, fumonisin B1, and T2 toxin produced by Fusarium spp., sterigmatocystin produced by Aspergillus spp. and AAL toxin produced [...] Read more.
The efficacy of cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) with ambient air as working gas for the degradation of selected mycotoxins was studied. Deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, enniatins, fumonisin B1, and T2 toxin produced by Fusarium spp., sterigmatocystin produced by Aspergillus spp. and AAL toxin produced by Alternaria alternata were used. The kinetics of the decay of mycotoxins exposed to plasma discharge was monitored. All pure mycotoxins exposed to CAPP were degraded almost completely within 60 s. Degradation rates varied with mycotoxin structure: fumonisin B1 and structurally related AAL toxin were degraded most rapidly while sterigmatocystin exhibited the highest resistance to degradation. As compared to pure compounds, the degradation rates of mycotoxins embedded in extracts of fungal cultures on rice were reduced to a varying extent. Our results show that CAPP efficiently degrades pure mycotoxins, the degradation rates vary with mycotoxin structure, and the presence of matrix slows down yet does not prevent the degradation. CAPP appears promising for the decontamination of food commodities with mycotoxins confined to or enriched on surfaces such as cereal grains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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4655 KiB  
Article
Identification of the Anti-Aflatoxinogenic Activity of Micromeria graeca and Elucidation of Its Molecular Mechanism in Aspergillus flavus
by Rhoda El Khoury, Isaura Caceres, Olivier Puel, Sylviane Bailly, Ali Atoui, Isabelle P. Oswald, André El Khoury and Jean-Denis Bailly
Toxins 2017, 9(3), 87; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9030087 - 01 Mar 2017
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 10418
Abstract
Of all the food-contaminating mycotoxins, aflatoxins, and most notably aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), are found to be the most toxic and economically costly. Green farming is striving to replace fungicides and develop natural preventive strategies to minimize crop contamination by these [...] Read more.
Of all the food-contaminating mycotoxins, aflatoxins, and most notably aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), are found to be the most toxic and economically costly. Green farming is striving to replace fungicides and develop natural preventive strategies to minimize crop contamination by these toxic fungal metabolites. In this study, we demonstrated that an aqueous extract of the medicinal plant Micromeria graeca—known as hyssop—completely inhibits aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus without reducing fungal growth. The molecular inhibitory mechanism was explored by analyzing the expression of 61 genes, including 27 aflatoxin biosynthesis cluster genes and 34 secondary metabolism regulatory genes. This analysis revealed a three-fold down-regulation of aflR and aflS encoding the two internal cluster co-activators, resulting in a drastic repression of all aflatoxin biosynthesis genes. Hyssop also targeted fifteen regulatory genes, including veA and mtfA, two major global-regulating transcription factors. The effect of this extract is also linked to a transcriptomic variation of several genes required for the response to oxidative stress such as msnA, srrA, catA, cat2, sod1, mnsod, and stuA. In conclusion, hyssop inhibits AFB1 synthesis at the transcriptomic level. This aqueous extract is a promising natural-based solution to control AFB1 contamination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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956 KiB  
Article
Static Hot Air and Infrared Rays Roasting are Efficient Methods for Aflatoxin Decontamination on Hazelnuts
by Ilenia Siciliano, Barbara Dal Bello, Giuseppe Zeppa, Davide Spadaro and Maria Lodovica Gullino
Toxins 2017, 9(2), 72; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9020072 - 21 Feb 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4567
Abstract
Aflatoxins are a group of secondary metabolites produced by members of Aspergillus Section Flavi that are dangerous to humans and animals. Nuts can be potentially contaminated with aflatoxins, often over the legal threshold. Food processes, including roasting, may have different effects on mycotoxins, [...] Read more.
Aflatoxins are a group of secondary metabolites produced by members of Aspergillus Section Flavi that are dangerous to humans and animals. Nuts can be potentially contaminated with aflatoxins, often over the legal threshold. Food processes, including roasting, may have different effects on mycotoxins, and high temperatures have proven to be very effective in the reduction of mycotoxins. In this work, two different roasting methods—traditional static hot air roasting and infra-red rays roasting—were applied and compared for the detoxification of hazelnuts from Italy and Turkey. At the temperature of 140 °C for 40 min of exposure, detoxification was effective for both roasting techniques. Residual aflatoxins after infra-red rays treatments were lower compared to static hot air roasting. On Italian hazelnuts, residual aflatoxins were lower than 5%, while for Turkish hazelnuts they were lower than 15% after 40 min of exposure to an infra-red rays roaster. After roasting, the perisperm was detached from the nuts and analyzed for aflatoxin contents. Residual aflatoxins in the perisperm ranged from 80% up to 100%. After roasting, the lipid profile and the nutritional quality of hazelnuts were not affected. Fatty acid methyl esters analyses showed a similar composition for Italian and Turkish hazelnuts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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1864 KiB  
Article
Patulin Degradation by the Biocontrol Yeast Sporobolomyces sp. Is an Inducible Process
by Giuseppe Ianiri, Cristina Pinedo, Alessandra Fratianni, Gianfranco Panfili and Raffaello Castoria
Toxins 2017, 9(2), 61; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9020061 - 10 Feb 2017
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 6060
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by Penicillium expansum and a common contaminant of pome fruits and their derived products worldwide. It is considered to be mutagenic, genotoxic, immunotoxic, teratogenic and cytotoxic, and the development of strategies to reduce this contamination is an active [...] Read more.
Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by Penicillium expansum and a common contaminant of pome fruits and their derived products worldwide. It is considered to be mutagenic, genotoxic, immunotoxic, teratogenic and cytotoxic, and the development of strategies to reduce this contamination is an active field of research. We previously reported that Sporobolomyces sp. is able to degrade patulin and convert it into the breakdown products desoxypatulinic acid and ascladiol, both of which were found to be less toxic than patulin. The specific aim of this study was the evaluation of the triggering of the mechanisms involved in patulin resistance and degradation by Sporobolomyces sp. Cells pre-incubated in the presence of a low patulin concentration showed a higher resistance to patulin toxicity and a faster kinetics of degradation. Similarly, patulin degradation was faster when crude intracellular protein extracts of Sporobolomyces sp. were prepared from cells pre-treated with the mycotoxin, indicating the induction of the mechanisms involved in the resistance and degradation of the mycotoxin by Sporobolomyces sp. This study contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms of patulin resistance and degradation by Sporobolomyces sp., which is an essential prerequisite for developing an industrial approach aiming at the production of patulin-free products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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3161 KiB  
Article
Novel Aflatoxin-Degrading Enzyme from Bacillus shackletonii L7
by Liang Xu, Mohamed Farah Eisa Ahmed, Lancine Sangare, Yueju Zhao, Jonathan Nimal Selvaraj, Fuguo Xing, Yan Wang, Hongping Yang and Yang Liu
Toxins 2017, 9(1), 36; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9010036 - 14 Jan 2017
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 7098
Abstract
Food and feed contamination by aflatoxin (AF)B1 has adverse economic and health consequences. AFB1 degradation by microorganisms or microbial enzymes provides a promising preventive measure. To this end, the present study tested 43 bacterial isolates collected from maize, rice, and soil [...] Read more.
Food and feed contamination by aflatoxin (AF)B1 has adverse economic and health consequences. AFB1 degradation by microorganisms or microbial enzymes provides a promising preventive measure. To this end, the present study tested 43 bacterial isolates collected from maize, rice, and soil samples for AFB1-reducing activity. The higher activity was detected in isolate L7, which was identified as Bacillus shackletonii. L7 reduced AFB1, AFB2, and AFM1 levels by 92.1%, 84.1%, and 90.4%, respectively, after 72 h at 37 °C. The L7 culture supernatant degraded more AFB1 than viable cells and cell extracts; and the degradation activity was reduced from 77.9% to 15.3% in the presence of proteinase K and sodium dodecyl sulphate. A thermostable enzyme purified from the boiled supernatant was designated as Bacillus aflatoxin-degrading enzyme (BADE). An overall 9.55-fold purification of BADE with a recovery of 39.92% and an activity of 3.85 × 103 U·mg−1 was obtained using chromatography on DEAE-Sepharose. BADE had an estimated molecular mass of 22 kDa and exhibited the highest activity at 70 °C and pH 8.0, which was enhanced by Cu2+ and inhibited by Zn2+, Mn2+, Mg2+, and Li+. BADE is the major protein involved in AFB1 detoxification. This is the first report of a BADE isolated from B. shackletonii, which has potential applications in the detoxification of aflatoxins during food and feed processing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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4192 KiB  
Article
Degradation of Aflatoxins by Means of Laccases from Trametes versicolor: An In Silico Insight
by Luca Dellafiora, Gianni Galaverna, Massimo Reverberi and Chiara Dall’Asta
Toxins 2017, 9(1), 17; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9010017 - 01 Jan 2017
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 7596
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that contaminate food and feed, and are involved in a series of foodborne illnesses and disorders in humans and animals. The mitigation of mycotoxin content via enzymatic degradation is a strategy to ensure safer food and feed, [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that contaminate food and feed, and are involved in a series of foodborne illnesses and disorders in humans and animals. The mitigation of mycotoxin content via enzymatic degradation is a strategy to ensure safer food and feed, and to address the forthcoming issues in view of the global trade and sustainability. Nevertheless, the search for active enzymes is still challenging and time-consuming. The in silico analysis may strongly support the research by providing the evidence-based hierarchization of enzymes for a rational design of more effective experimental trials. The present work dealt with the degradation of aflatoxin B1 and M1 by laccase enzymes from Trametes versicolor. The enzymes–substrate interaction for various enzyme isoforms was investigated through 3D molecular modeling techniques. Structural differences among the isoforms have been pinpointed, which may cause different patterns of interaction between aflatoxin B1 and M1. The possible formation of different products of degradation can be argued accordingly. Moreover, the laccase gamma isoform was identified as the most suitable for protein engineering aimed at ameliorating the substrate specificity. Overall, 3D modeling proved to be an effective analytical tool to assess the enzyme–substrate interaction and provided a solid foothold for supporting the search of degrading enzyme at the early stage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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256 KiB  
Article
Ameliorating Effects of Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 on Growth Performance, Antioxidant Functions, and Aflatoxin Residues in Ducks Fed Diets Contaminated with Aflatoxins
by Liyuan Zhang, Qiugang Ma, Shanshan Ma, Jianyun Zhang, Ru Jia, Cheng Ji and Lihong Zhao
Toxins 2017, 9(1), 1; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9010001 - 22 Dec 2016
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 4616
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 isolated from fish gut is very effective in detoxifying aflatoxins in feed and feed ingredients. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of B. subtilis ANSB060 on growth performance, body antioxidant functions, and aflatoxin residues in ducks [...] Read more.
Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 isolated from fish gut is very effective in detoxifying aflatoxins in feed and feed ingredients. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of B. subtilis ANSB060 on growth performance, body antioxidant functions, and aflatoxin residues in ducks fed moldy maize naturally contaminated with aflatoxins. A total of 1500 18-d-old male Cherry Valley ducks with similar body weight were randomly assigned to five treatments with six replicates of 50 ducks per repeat. The experiment design consisted of five dietary treatments labeled as C0 (basal diet containing 60% normal maize), M0 (basal diet containing 60% moldy maize contaminated with aflatoxins substituted for normal maize), M500, M1000, and M2000 (M0 +500, 1000 or 2000 g/t aflatoxin biodegradation preparation mainly consisted of B. subtilis ANSB060). The results showed that ducks fed 22.44 ± 2.46 μg/kg of AFB1 (M0) exhibited a decreasing tendency in average daily gain (ADG) and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activity in serum, and T-SOD and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities in the liver significantly decreased along with the appearance of AFB1 and AFM1 compared with those in Group C0. The supplementation of B. subtilis ANSB060 into aflatoxin-contaminated diets increased the ADG of ducks (p > 0.05), significantly improved antioxidant enzyme activities, and reduced aflatoxin accumulation in duck liver. In conclusion, Bacillus subtilis ANSB060 in diets showed an ameliorating effect to duck aflatoxicosis and may be a promising feed additive. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
4232 KiB  
Article
Detoxification of Deoxynivalenol via Glycosylation Represents Novel Insights on Antagonistic Activities of Trichoderma when Confronted with Fusarium graminearum
by Ye Tian, Yanglan Tan, Na Liu, Zheng Yan, Yucai Liao, Jie Chen, Sarah De Saeger, Hua Yang, Qiaoyan Zhang and Aibo Wu
Toxins 2016, 8(11), 335; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins8110335 - 15 Nov 2016
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 7177
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin mainly produced by the Fusarium graminearum complex, which are important phytopathogens that can infect crops and lead to a serious disease called Fusarium head blight (FHB). As the most common B type trichothecene mycotoxin, DON has toxic effects [...] Read more.
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin mainly produced by the Fusarium graminearum complex, which are important phytopathogens that can infect crops and lead to a serious disease called Fusarium head blight (FHB). As the most common B type trichothecene mycotoxin, DON has toxic effects on animals and humans, which poses a risk to food security. Thus, efforts have been devoted to control DON contamination in different ways. Management of DON production by Trichoderma strains as a biological control-based strategy has drawn great attention recently. In our study, eight selected Trichoderma strains were evaluated for their antagonistic activities on F. graminearum by dual culture on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. As potential antagonists, Trichoderma strains showed prominent inhibitory effects on mycelial growth and mycotoxin production of F. graminearum. In addition, the modified mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (D3G), which was once regarded as a detoxification product of DON in plant defense, was detected when Trichoderma were confronted with F. graminearum. The occurrence of D3G in F. graminearum and Trichoderma interaction was reported for the first time, and these findings provide evidence that Trichoderma strains possess a self-protection mechanism as plants to detoxify DON into D3G when competing with F. graminearum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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2329 KiB  
Article
A Structure Identification and Toxicity Assessment of the Degradation Products of Aflatoxin B1 in Peanut Oil under UV Irradiation
by Jin Mao, Bing He, Liangxiao Zhang, Peiwu Li, Qi Zhang, Xiaoxia Ding and Wen Zhang
Toxins 2016, 8(11), 332; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins8110332 - 12 Nov 2016
Cited by 108 | Viewed by 10125
Abstract
Aflatoxins, a group of extremely hazardous compounds because of their genotoxicity and carcinogenicity to human and animals, are commonly found in many tropical and subtropical regions. Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is proven to be an effective method to reduce or detoxify aflatoxins. However, the [...] Read more.
Aflatoxins, a group of extremely hazardous compounds because of their genotoxicity and carcinogenicity to human and animals, are commonly found in many tropical and subtropical regions. Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is proven to be an effective method to reduce or detoxify aflatoxins. However, the degradation products of aflatoxins under UV irradiation and their safety or toxicity have not been clear in practical production such as edible oil industry. In this study, the degradation products of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in peanut oil were analyzed by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatograph-Thermo Quadrupole Exactive Focus mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (UPLC-TQEF-MS/MS). The high-resolution mass spectra reflected that two main products were formed after the modification of a double bond in the terminal furan ring and the fracture of the lactone ring, while the small molecules especially nitrogen-containing compound may have participated in the photochemical reaction. According to the above results, the possible photodegradation pathway of AFB1 in peanut oil is proposed. Moreover, the human embryo hepatocytes viability assay indicated that the cell toxicity of degradation products after UV irradiation was much lower than that of AFB1, which could be attributed to the breakage of toxicological sites. These findings can provide new information for metabolic pathways and the hazard assessment of AFB1 using UV detoxification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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1134 KiB  
Article
Curcumin Prevents Aflatoxin B1 Hepatoxicity by Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 Isozymes in Chick Liver
by Ni-Ya Zhang, Ming Qi, Ling Zhao, Ming-Kun Zhu, Jiao Guo, Jie Liu, Chang-Qin Gu, Shahid Ali Rajput, Christopher Steven Krumm, De-Sheng Qi and Lv-Hui Sun
Toxins 2016, 8(11), 327; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins8110327 - 10 Nov 2016
Cited by 106 | Viewed by 6297
Abstract
This study was designed to establish if Curcumin (CM) alleviates Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced hepatotoxic effects and to determine whether alteration of the expression of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) isozymes is involved in the regulation of these effects in chick liver. One-day-old [...] Read more.
This study was designed to establish if Curcumin (CM) alleviates Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced hepatotoxic effects and to determine whether alteration of the expression of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) isozymes is involved in the regulation of these effects in chick liver. One-day-old male broilers (n = 120) were divided into four groups and used in a two by two factorial trial in which the main factors included supplementing AFB1 (< 5 vs. 100 μg/kg) and CM (0 vs. 150 mg/kg) in a corn/soybean-based diet. Administration of AFB1 induced liver injury, significantly decreasing albumin and total protein concentrations and increasing alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities in serum, and induced hepatic histological lesions at week 2. AFB1 also significantly decreased hepatic glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and glutathione levels, while increasing malondialdehyde, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine, and exo-AFB1-8,9-epoxide (AFBO)-DNA concentrations. In addition, the mRNA and/or activity of enzymes responsible for the bioactivation of AFB1 into AFBO—including CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2A6, and CYP3A4—were significantly induced in liver microsomes after 2-week exposure to AFB1. These alterations induced by AFB1 were prevented by CM supplementation. Conclusively, dietary CM protected chicks from AFB1-induced liver injury, potentially through the synergistic actions of increased antioxidant capacities and inhibition of the pivotal CYP450 isozyme-mediated activation of AFB1 to toxic AFBO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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Article
Effect of Degradation of Zearalenone-Contaminated Feed by Bacillus licheniformis CK1 on Postweaning Female Piglets
by Guanhua Fu, Junfei Ma, Lihong Wang, Xin Yang, Jeruei Liu and Xin Zhao
Toxins 2016, 8(10), 300; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins8100300 - 17 Oct 2016
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6643
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA), an estrogenic mycotoxin, is mainly produced by Fusarium fungi. In this study, Bacillus licheniformis CK1 isolated from soil with the capability of degrading ZEA was evaluated for its efficacy in reducing the adverse effects of ZEA in piglets. The gilts were [...] Read more.
Zearalenone (ZEA), an estrogenic mycotoxin, is mainly produced by Fusarium fungi. In this study, Bacillus licheniformis CK1 isolated from soil with the capability of degrading ZEA was evaluated for its efficacy in reducing the adverse effects of ZEA in piglets. The gilts were fed one of the following three diets for 14 days: a basic diet for the control group; the basic diet supplemented with ZEA-contaminated basic diet for the treatment 1 (T1) group; and the basic diet supplemented with fermented ZEA-contaminated basic diet by CK1 for the treatment 2 (T2) group. The actual ZEA contents (analyzed) were 0, 1.20 ± 0.11, 0.47 ± 0.22 mg/kg for the control, T1, and T2 diets, respectively. The results showed that the T1 group had significantly increased the size of vulva and the relative weight of reproductive organs compared to the control group at the end of the trial. The T1 group significantly decreased the concentration of the luteinizing hormone (LH) compared with the control and T2 groups. Expression of ERβ was significantly up-regulated in the T2 group compared with the control. In addition, expression of ERβ was not different between the control and the T1 group. In summary, our results suggest that Bacillus licheniformis CK1 could detoxify ZEA in feed and reduce the adverse effects of ZEA in the gilts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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3077 KiB  
Article
The Possible Mechanisms Involved in Degradation of Patulin by Pichia caribbica
by Xiangfeng Zheng, Qiya Yang, Hongyin Zhang, Jing Cao, Xiaoyun Zhang and Maurice Tibiru Apaliya
Toxins 2016, 8(10), 289; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins8100289 - 09 Oct 2016
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 6821
Abstract
In this work, we examined the mechanisms involved in the degradation of patulin by Pichia caribbica. Our results indicate that cell-free filtrate of P. caribbica reduced patutlin content. The heat-killed cells could not degrade patulin. However, the live cells significantly reduced the [...] Read more.
In this work, we examined the mechanisms involved in the degradation of patulin by Pichia caribbica. Our results indicate that cell-free filtrate of P. caribbica reduced patutlin content. The heat-killed cells could not degrade patulin. However, the live cells significantly reduced the concentration of the patulin. In furtherance to this, it was observed that patulin was not detected in the broken yeast cells and cell wall. The addition of cycloheximide to the P. caribbica cells decreased the capacity of degradation of patulin. Proteomics analyses revealed that patulin treatment resulted in an upregulated protein which was involved in metabolism and stress response processes. Our results suggested that the mechanism of degradation of patulin by P. caribbica was not absorption; the presence of patulin can induce P. caribbica to produce associated intracellular and extracellular enzymes, both of which have the ability to degrade patulin. The result provides a new possible method that used the enzymes produced by yeast to detoxify patulin in food and feed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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265 KiB  
Article
Protective Effects of Sporoderm-Broken Spores of Ganderma lucidum on Growth Performance, Antioxidant Capacity and Immune Function of Broiler Chickens Exposed to Low Level of Aflatoxin B1
by Tao Liu, Qiugang Ma, Lihong Zhao, Ru Jia, Jianyun Zhang, Cheng Ji and Xinyue Wang
Toxins 2016, 8(10), 278; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins8100278 - 24 Sep 2016
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5624
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate the toxic effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and evaluate the effects of sporoderm-broken spores of Ganoderma lucidum (SSGL) in relieving aflatoxicosis in broilers. A total of 300 one-day-old male Arbor Acre broiler chickens were [...] Read more.
This study was conducted to investigate the toxic effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and evaluate the effects of sporoderm-broken spores of Ganoderma lucidum (SSGL) in relieving aflatoxicosis in broilers. A total of 300 one-day-old male Arbor Acre broiler chickens were randomly divided into four dietary treatments; the treatment diets were: Control (a basal diet containing normal peanut meal); AFB1 (the basal diet containing AFB1-contaminated peanut meal); SSGL (basal diet with 200 mg/kg of SSGL); AFB1+SSGL (supplementation of 200 mg/kg of SSGL in AFB1 diet). The contents of AFB1 in AFB1 and AFB1+SSGL diets were 25.0 μg/kg in the starter period and 22.5 μg/kg in the finisher period. The results showed that diet contaminated with a low level of AFB1 significantly decreased (p < 0.05) the average daily feed intake and average daily gain during the entire experiment and reduced (p < 0.05) serum contents of total protein IgA and IgG. Furthermore, a dietary low level of AFB1 not only increased (p < 0.05) levels of hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxidation, but also decreased (p < 0.05) total antioxidant capability, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and hydroxyl radical scavenger activity in the liver and spleen of broilers. Moreover, the addition of SSGL to AFB1-contaminated diet counteracted these negative effects, indicating that SSGL has a protective effect against aflatoxicosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
2059 KiB  
Article
Beyond Ribosomal Binding: The Increased Polarity and Aberrant Molecular Interactions of 3-epi-deoxynivalenol
by Yousef I. Hassan, Honghui Zhu, Yan Zhu and Ting Zhou
Toxins 2016, 8(9), 261; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins8090261 - 08 Sep 2016
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4862
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a secondary fungal metabolite and contaminant mycotoxin that is widely detected in wheat and corn products cultivated around the world. Bio-remediation methods have been extensively studied in the past two decades and promising ways to reduce DON-associated toxicities have been [...] Read more.
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a secondary fungal metabolite and contaminant mycotoxin that is widely detected in wheat and corn products cultivated around the world. Bio-remediation methods have been extensively studied in the past two decades and promising ways to reduce DON-associated toxicities have been reported. Bacterial epimerization of DON at the C3 carbon was recently reported to induce a significant loss in the bio-toxicity of the resulting stereoisomer (3-epi-DON) in comparison to the parental compound, DON. In an earlier study, we confirmed the diminished bio-potency of 3-epi-DON using different mammalian cell lines and mouse models and mechanistically attributed it to the reduced binding of 3-epi-DON within the ribosomal peptidyl transferase center (PTC). In the current study and by inspecting the chromatographic behavior of 3-epi-DON and its molecular interactions with a well-characterized enzyme, Fusarium graminearum Tri101 acetyltransferase, we provide the evidence that the C3 carbon epimerization of DON influences its molecular interactions beyond the abrogated PTC binding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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Review

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437 KiB  
Review
Mitigation of Patulin in Fresh and Processed Foods and Beverages
by J. David Ioi, Ting Zhou, Rong Tsao and Massimo F. Marcone
Toxins 2017, 9(5), 157; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9050157 - 11 May 2017
Cited by 91 | Viewed by 7793
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin of food safety concern. It is produced by numerous species of fungi growing on fruits and vegetables. Exposure to the toxin is connected to issues neurological, immunological, and gastrointestinal in nature. Regulatory agencies worldwide have established maximum allowable levels [...] Read more.
Patulin is a mycotoxin of food safety concern. It is produced by numerous species of fungi growing on fruits and vegetables. Exposure to the toxin is connected to issues neurological, immunological, and gastrointestinal in nature. Regulatory agencies worldwide have established maximum allowable levels of 50 µg/kg in foods. Despite regulations, surveys continue to find patulin in commercial food and beverage products, in some cases, to exceed the maximum limits. Patulin content in food can be mitigated throughout the food processing chain. Proper handling, storage, and transportation of food can limit fungal growth and patulin production. Common processing techniques including pasteurisation, filtration, and fermentation all have an effect on patulin content in food but individually are not sufficient safety measures. Novel methods to remove or detoxify patulin have been reviewed. Non-thermal processing techniques such as high hydrostatic pressure, UV radiation, enzymatic degradation, binding to microorganisms, and chemical degradation all have potential but have not been optimised. Until further refinement of these methods, the hurdle approach to processing should be used where food safety is concerned. Future development should focus on determining the nature and safety of chemicals produced from the breakdown of patulin in treatment techniques. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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5385 KiB  
Review
Mycotoxin Decontamination of Food: Cold Atmospheric Pressure Plasma versus “Classic” Decontamination
by Nataša Hojnik, Uroš Cvelbar, Gabrijela Tavčar-Kalcher, James L. Walsh and Igor Križaj
Toxins 2017, 9(5), 151; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9050151 - 28 Apr 2017
Cited by 99 | Viewed by 10555
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several filamentous fungi, which frequently contaminate our food, and can result in human diseases affecting vital systems such as the nervous and immune systems. They can also trigger various forms of cancer. Intensive food production is contributing [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several filamentous fungi, which frequently contaminate our food, and can result in human diseases affecting vital systems such as the nervous and immune systems. They can also trigger various forms of cancer. Intensive food production is contributing to incorrect handling, transport and storage of the food, resulting in increased levels of mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxins are structurally very diverse molecules necessitating versatile food decontamination approaches, which are grouped into physical, chemical and biological techniques. In this review, a new and promising approach involving the use of cold atmospheric pressure plasma is considered, which may overcome multiple weaknesses associated with the classical methods. In addition to its mycotoxin destruction efficiency, cold atmospheric pressure plasma is cost effective, ecologically neutral and has a negligible effect on the quality of food products following treatment in comparison to classical methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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611 KiB  
Review
Strategies and Methodologies for Developing Microbial Detoxification Systems to Mitigate Mycotoxins
by Yan Zhu, Yousef I. Hassan, Dion Lepp, Suqin Shao and Ting Zhou
Toxins 2017, 9(4), 130; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9040130 - 07 Apr 2017
Cited by 89 | Viewed by 8977
Abstract
Mycotoxins, the secondary metabolites of mycotoxigenic fungi, have been found in almost all agricultural commodities worldwide, causing enormous economic losses in livestock production and severe human health problems. Compared to traditional physical adsorption and chemical reactions, interest in biological detoxification methods that are [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins, the secondary metabolites of mycotoxigenic fungi, have been found in almost all agricultural commodities worldwide, causing enormous economic losses in livestock production and severe human health problems. Compared to traditional physical adsorption and chemical reactions, interest in biological detoxification methods that are environmentally sound, safe and highly efficient has seen a significant increase in recent years. However, researchers in this field have been facing tremendous unexpected challenges and are eager to find solutions. This review summarizes and assesses the research strategies and methodologies in each phase of the development of microbiological solutions for mycotoxin mitigation. These include screening of functional microbial consortia from natural samples, isolation and identification of single colonies with biotransformation activity, investigation of the physiological characteristics of isolated strains, identification and assessment of the toxicities of biotransformation products, purification of functional enzymes and the application of mycotoxin decontamination to feed/food production. A full understanding and appropriate application of this tool box should be helpful towards the development of novel microbiological solutions on mycotoxin detoxification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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2150 KiB  
Review
Mycotoxin Biotransformation by Native and Commercial Enzymes: Present and Future Perspectives
by Martina Loi, Francesca Fanelli, Vania C. Liuzzi, Antonio F. Logrieco and Giuseppina Mulè
Toxins 2017, 9(4), 111; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins9040111 - 24 Mar 2017
Cited by 149 | Viewed by 10773
Abstract
Worldwide mycotoxins contamination has a significant impact on animal and human health, and leads to economic losses accounted for billions of dollars annually. Since the application of pre- and post- harvest strategies, including chemical or physical removal, are not sufficiently effective, biological transformation [...] Read more.
Worldwide mycotoxins contamination has a significant impact on animal and human health, and leads to economic losses accounted for billions of dollars annually. Since the application of pre- and post- harvest strategies, including chemical or physical removal, are not sufficiently effective, biological transformation is considered the most promising yet challenging approach to reduce mycotoxins accumulation. Although several microorganisms were reported to degrade mycotoxins, only a few enzymes have been identified, purified and characterized for this activity. This review focuses on the biotransformation of mycotoxins performed with purified enzymes isolated from bacteria, fungi and plants, whose activity was validated in in vitro and in vivo assays, including patented ones and commercial preparations. Furthermore, we will present some applications for detoxifying enzymes in food, feed, biogas and biofuel industries, describing their limitation and potentialities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Detoxification Strategies to Mitigate Mycotoxins in Food and Feed)
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