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13 pages, 1042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiological Aspects of Equid Herpesvirus-Associated Myeloencephalopathy (EHM) Outbreaks

by Eva Klouth, Yury Zablotski, Jessica L. Petersen, Marco de Bruijn, Gittan Gröndahl, Susanne Müller and Lutz S. Goehring

Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2576; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14112576 - 21 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1858

Abstract

Equid Herpesvirus Myeloencephalopathy (EHM) is a multifactorial disease following an EHV-1 infection in Equidae. We investigated a total of 589 horses on 13 premises in Europe in search of risk factors for the development of EHM. We found that fever (p < [...] Read more.

Equid Herpesvirus Myeloencephalopathy (EHM) is a multifactorial disease following an EHV-1 infection in Equidae. We investigated a total of 589 horses on 13 premises in Europe in search of risk factors for the development of EHM. We found that fever (p < 0.001), increasing age (p = 0.032), and female sex (p = 0.042) were risk factors for EHM in a logistic mixed model. Some breeds had a decreased risk to develop EHM compared to others (Shetland and Welsh ponies; p = 0.017; p = 0.031), and fewer EHV-1-vaccinated horses were affected by EHM compared to unvaccinated horses (p = 0.02). Data evaluation was complex due to high variability between outbreaks with regards to construction and environment; viral characteristics and the virus’s transmissibility were affected by operational management. This study confirms earlier suspected host-specific risk factors, and our data support the benefit of high vaccine coverage at high-traffic boarding facilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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17 pages, 1997 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seroepidemiological Survey of West Nile Virus Infections in Horses from Berlin/Brandenburg and North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

by Felicitas Bergmann, Dagmar S. Trachsel, Sabita D. Stoeckle, Joke Bernis Sierra, Stephan Lübke, Martin H. Groschup, Heidrun Gehlen and Ute Ziegler

Viruses 2022, 14(2), 243; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14020243 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3298

Abstract

Following the introduction of the West Nile virus (WNV) into eastern Germany in 2018, increasing infections have been diagnosed in birds, equines, and humans over time, while the spread of WNV into western Germany remained unclear. We screened 437 equine sera from 2018 [...] Read more.

Following the introduction of the West Nile virus (WNV) into eastern Germany in 2018, increasing infections have been diagnosed in birds, equines, and humans over time, while the spread of WNV into western Germany remained unclear. We screened 437 equine sera from 2018 to 2020, excluding vaccinated horses, collected from convenience sampled patients in the eastern and western parts of Germany, for WNV-specific antibodies (ELISAs followed by virus/specific neutralization tests) and genomes (RT-qPCRs). Clinical presentations, final diagnoses, and demographic data were also recorded. In the eastern part, a total of eight horses were found WNV seropositive in 2019 (seroprevalence of 8.16%) and 27 in 2020 (13.77%). There were also two clinically unsuspected horses with WNV-specific antibodies in the western part from 2020 (2.63%), albeit travel history-related infections could not be excluded. None of the horse sera contained WNV-specific genomes. Eight horses in eastern Germany carried WNV-IgM antibodies, but only four of these showed typical clinical signs. These results underline the difficulty of detecting a WNV infection in a horse solely based on clinical signs. Thus, WNV circulation is established in the horse population in eastern Germany, but not yet in the western part. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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16 pages, 2089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

West Nile Virus and Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Are Endemic in Equids in Eastern Austria

by Phebe de Heus, Jolanta Kolodziejek, Zdenĕk Hubálek, Katharina Dimmel, Victoria Racher, Norbert Nowotny and Jessika-M. V. Cavalleri

Viruses 2021, 13(9), 1873; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13091873 - 19 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4668

Abstract

The emergence of West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) in addition to the autochthonous tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in Europe causes rising concern for public and animal health. The first equine case of West Nile neuroinvasive disease in Austria was diagnosed [...] Read more.

The emergence of West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) in addition to the autochthonous tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in Europe causes rising concern for public and animal health. The first equine case of West Nile neuroinvasive disease in Austria was diagnosed in 2016. As a consequence, a cross-sectional seroprevalence study was conducted in 2017, including 348 equids from eastern Austria. Serum samples reactive by ELISA for either flavivirus immunoglobulin G or M were further analyzed with the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT-80) to identify the specific etiologic agent. Neutralizing antibody prevalences excluding vaccinated equids were found to be 5.3% for WNV, 15.5% for TBEV, 0% for USUV, and 1.2% for WNV from autochthonous origin. Additionally, reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was performed to detect WNV nucleic acid in horse sera and was found to be negative in all cases. Risk factor analysis did not identify any factors significantly associated with seropositivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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11 pages, 581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus (TBEV) Infection in Two Horses

by Theresa Maria Conze, Zoltán Bagó, Sandra Revilla-Fernández, Jürgen Schlegel, Lutz S. Goehring and Kaspar Matiasek

Viruses 2021, 13(9), 1775; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13091775 - 06 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3431

Abstract

A final diagnosis in a horse with clinical signs of encephalopathy can be challenging despite the use of extensive diagnostics. Clinical signs are often not pathognomonic and need to be interpreted in combination with (specific) laboratory results and epidemiological data of the geographical [...] Read more.

A final diagnosis in a horse with clinical signs of encephalopathy can be challenging despite the use of extensive diagnostics. Clinical signs are often not pathognomonic and need to be interpreted in combination with (specific) laboratory results and epidemiological data of the geographical region of the origin of the case(s). Here we describe the diagnostic pathway of tick-borne encephalitis virus infection in two horses using established molecular diagnostic methods and a novel in situ hybridization technique to differentiate between regionally important/emerging diseases for central Europe: (i) hepatoencephalopathy, (ii) Borna disease virus, and (iii) West Nile virus infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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10 pages, 10444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Nasal Shedding of Equid Gammaherpesviruses in Healthy Swiss Horses

by Laura Scheurer, Claudia Bachofen, Isabelle Hardmeier, Julia Lechmann and Angelika Schoster

Viruses 2021, 13(9), 1686; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13091686 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2140

Abstract

Equid Gamma herpesvirus (eGHV) infections have been reported worldwide and may be correlated with clinical signs, e.g., affecting the respiratory tract in young horses. eGHV are shed by healthy horses as well as horses with respiratory tract disease. The prevalence in healthy Swiss [...] Read more.

Equid Gamma herpesvirus (eGHV) infections have been reported worldwide and may be correlated with clinical signs, e.g., affecting the respiratory tract in young horses. eGHV are shed by healthy horses as well as horses with respiratory tract disease. The prevalence in healthy Swiss horses is unknown to date but this data would provide valuable information for causal diagnosis in clinical cases and formulation of biosecurity recommendations. Nasal swabs from 68 healthy horses from 12 Swiss stables and 2 stables near the Swiss border region in Germany were analyzed by panherpes nested PCR. Positive samples were sequenced. A multivariable model was used to determine if sex, age, breed, canton, or stable had a significant effect on the shedding status of each detected eGHV. Overall, the eGHV prevalence was 59% (n = 68); the prevalence for equid herpesvirus-2 (EHV-2), equid herpesvirus-5 (EHV-5) and asinine herpesvirus-5 (AHV-5) was 38%, 12% and 9%, respectively. Co-infections with multiple eGHVs were observed in 25% of the positive samples. The odds of shedding EHV-2 decreased with age (p = 0.01) whereas the odds of shedding AHV-5 increased with age (p = 0.04). Breed, sex, canton, or stable had no significant association with eGHV shedding. As EHV-2 shedding was common in healthy horses a positive PCR result must be interpreted with caution regarding the formulation of biosecurity recommendations and causal diagnosis. As EHV-5 and AHV-5 shedding was less common than EHV-2, a positive test result is more likely to be of clinical relevance. Shedding of multiple eGHV complicates the interpretation of positive test results in a horse. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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19 pages, 2041 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Equine Parvovirus-Hepatitis Screening in Horses and Donkeys with Histopathologic Liver Abnormalities

by Verena Zehetner, Jessika-M. V. Cavalleri, Andrea Klang, Martin Hofer, Irina Preining, Ralf Steinborn and Anna S. Ramsauer

Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1599; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13081599 - 12 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3227

Abstract

There is strong evidence that equine parvovirus-hepatitis (EqPV-H) is associated with the onset of Theiler’s disease, an acute hepatic necrosis, in horses. However, the impact of this virus on other hepatopathies remains unknown. The objective of this retrospective study was to evaluate the [...] Read more.

There is strong evidence that equine parvovirus-hepatitis (EqPV-H) is associated with the onset of Theiler’s disease, an acute hepatic necrosis, in horses. However, the impact of this virus on other hepatopathies remains unknown. The objective of this retrospective study was to evaluate the prevalence and quantify the viral loads of EqPV-H in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded equine and donkey livers with various histopathologic abnormalities. The pathologies included cirrhosis, circulatory disorders of the liver, toxic and metabolic hepatic diseases as well as neoplastic and inflammatory diseases (n = 84). Eight normal liver samples were included for comparison as controls. EqPV-H DNA was qualitatively and quantitatively measured by real-time PCR and digital PCR, respectively. The virus was detected in two livers originating from horses diagnosed with abdominal neoplasia and liver metastasis (loads of 5 × 10³ and 9.5 × 10³ genome equivalents per million cells). The amount of viral nucleic acids measured indicates chronic infection or persistence of EqPV-H, which might have been facilitated by the neoplastic disease. In summary, this study did not provide evidence for EqPV-H being involved in hepatopathies other than Theiler’s disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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12 pages, 1065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Insights into the Management of an EHV-1 (Equine Hospital) Outbreak

by Eveline Vandenberghe, Berit Boshuizen, Catherine J. G. Delesalle, Lutz S. Goehring, Katy A. Groome, Kees van Maanen and Cornelis M. de Bruijn

Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1429; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13081429 - 22 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2511

Abstract

In May 2018, Wolvega Equine Hospital (WEH) experienced an EHV-1 outbreak. This outbreak caused significant economic losses and negative publicity for the hospital. How should hospitals prepare themselves for these outbreaks and prevent shedding of the virus on multiple neighboring premises? The hospital [...] Read more.

In May 2018, Wolvega Equine Hospital (WEH) experienced an EHV-1 outbreak. This outbreak caused significant economic losses and negative publicity for the hospital. How should hospitals prepare themselves for these outbreaks and prevent shedding of the virus on multiple neighboring premises? The hospital transformed most of its activities into mobile practice and the entire infected hospital population was moved to a separate remote location. The hospital was cleaned and disinfected according to the latest recommendations before reopening. Four neighboring professional equine businesses and three privately owned premises were affected by the spread of the virus from the hospital population and initiated quarantine restrictions. Equine hospitals should prepare themselves for EHV-1 outbreaks as the intake of the virus cannot be prevented. A management protocol should include public information protocols, swift client information and quarantine measures that ensure quick containment of the outbreak. Timely reopening of the hospital can be achieved by rehousing the contaminated population. It should also include good regulations with clients and a properly carried out release protocol. Equine sports organizations should establish sufficient vaccination coverage in order to decrease the frequency of EHV-1 outbreaks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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15 pages, 1305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a Three-Dimensional In Vitro Model of Equine Papillomavirus Type 2 Infection

by Anna Sophie Ramsauer, Garrett Louis Wachoski-Dark, Cornel Fraefel, Mathias Ackermann, Sabine Brandt, Paula Grest, Cameron Greig Knight, Claude Favrot and Kurt Tobler

Viruses 2021, 13(7), 1404; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13071404 - 19 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2354

Abstract

There is growing evidence that equine papillomavirus type 2 (EcPV2) infection is etiologically associated with the development of genital squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and precursor lesions in equids. However, the precise mechanisms underlying neoplastic progression remain unknown. To allow the study of EcPV2-induced [...] Read more.

There is growing evidence that equine papillomavirus type 2 (EcPV2) infection is etiologically associated with the development of genital squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and precursor lesions in equids. However, the precise mechanisms underlying neoplastic progression remain unknown. To allow the study of EcPV2-induced carcinogenesis, we aimed to establish a primary equine cell culture model of EcPV2 infection. Three-dimensional (3D) raft cultures were generated from equine penile perilesional skin, plaques and SCCs. Using histological, molecular biological and immunohistochemical methods, rafts versus corresponding natural tissue sections were compared with regard to morphology, presence of EcPV2 DNA, presence and location of EcPV2 gene transcripts and expression of epithelial, mesenchymal and tumor/proliferation markers. Raft cultures from perilesional skin harboring only a few EcPV2-positive (EcPV2+) cells accurately recapitulated the differentiation process of normal skin, whilst rafts from EcPV2+ penile plaques were structurally organized but showed early hyperplasia. Rafts from EcPV2+ SCCs exhibited pronounced hyperplasia and marked dysplasia. Raft levels of EcPV2 oncogene transcription (E6/E7) and expression of tumor/proliferation markers p53, Ki67 and MCM7 expression positively correlated with neoplastic progression, again reflecting the natural situation. Three-dimensional raft cultures accurately reflected major features of corresponding ex vivo material, thus constituting a valuable new research model to study EcPV2-induced carcinogenesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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7 pages, 766 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Equine Arteritis Virus (EAV) Outbreak in a Show Stallion Population

by Christiane Otzdorff, Julia Beckmann and Lutz S. Goehring

Viruses 2021, 13(11), 2142; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13112142 - 24 Oct 2021

Viewed by 2559

Abstract

(1) Background: Equine arteritis virus (EAV) infection causes reproductive losses and systemic vasculitis in susceptible equidae. The intact male becomes the virus’ reservoir upon EAV infection, as it causes a chronic-persistent infection of the accessory sex glands. Infected semen is the main [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Equine arteritis virus (EAV) infection causes reproductive losses and systemic vasculitis in susceptible equidae. The intact male becomes the virus’ reservoir upon EAV infection, as it causes a chronic-persistent infection of the accessory sex glands. Infected semen is the main source of virus transmission. (2) Here, we describe acute EAV infection and spread in a stallion population after introduction of new members to the group. (3) Conclusions: acute clinical signs, acute phase detection of antigen via (PCR) nasal swabs or (EDTA) blood, and seroconversion support the idea of transmission via seminal fluids into the respiratory tract(s) of others. This outbreak highlights EAV’s horizontal transmission via the respiratory tract. This route should be considered in a chronic-persistently infected herd, when seronegative animals are added to the group. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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7 pages, 264 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Clinical Presentation and Laboratory Diagnostic Work-Up of a Horse with Tick-Borne Encephalitis in Switzerland

by Nathalie Fouché, Solange Oesch, Ute Ziegler and Vinzenz Gerber

Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1474; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13081474 - 28 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3341

Abstract

Tick-borne encephalitis is an important viral tick-borne zoonosis in Europe and Asia. The disease is induced by tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). This report describes a 16-year-old Warmblood gelding presenting with sudden onset of lethargy, ataxia, and muscle fasciculations on the nostrils, the lips, [...] Read more.

Tick-borne encephalitis is an important viral tick-borne zoonosis in Europe and Asia. The disease is induced by tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). This report describes a 16-year-old Warmblood gelding presenting with sudden onset of lethargy, ataxia, and muscle fasciculations on the nostrils, the lips, and the eye lids as the most important clinical findings. The horse further had a mild facial nerve paralysis with drooping of the right upper and lower lip. Diagnosis was based on paired serum samples using TBEV-ELISAs revealing high serum IgM in the first sample with normal IgM in the second sample and an increase in serum IgG and neutralizing antibodies, indicating acute and recent infection. TBEV was confirmed by a virus-neutralization test, revealing a fivefold increase in antibodies 32 days after of the onset of clinical signs. Although the specific PCR on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was negative, TBEV-specific IgG and IgM were identified in the CSF of the horse. Treatment consisted of anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative treatment and the horse recovered with a mild drooping of the right nostril as the only remaining clinical sign. TBEV infection is a potential differential diagnosis of neurological disease in horses living in endemic areas and this is the first report to describe the diagnostic criteria in a horse as recommended in humans with suspected TBEV infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Viruses in Continental Europe)

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