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Viruses
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Viral Infections in Companion Animals
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Viral Infections in Companion Animals

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 137083

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Margaret Hosie

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centre for Virus Research, MRC- University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Interests: comparative virology with special interests in the pathogenesis of feline retrovirus; calicivirus infections; the study of vaccine-induced immunity against veterinary; human viral infections
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Regina Hofmann-Lehmann

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Clinical Laboratory, Depertment for Clinical Diangostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Interests: clinical infectiology and laboratory medicine with special interests in molecular diagnosis; pathogenesis, and prophylaxis of retroviruses; haemotropic mycoplasmas; and viral and vector-borne infectious agents, particularly in domestic and wild felids
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Although dogs and cats are often the first companion animals that come to mind, horses, donkeys and exotic pets also share our lives. There is abundant evidence linking interactions between humans and their pets with improved health and well-being.

Viral infections can have devastating effects on the health and welfare of companion animals and are therefore of direct importance for their owners. Major infections include feline coronavirus (related to the novel coronavirus currently the focus of media attention), virulent systemic variants of feline calicivirus, canine distemper virus infections of dogs and large felids and equine herpes virus and West-Nile virus that cause severe diseases in horses. Companion animal viruses such as rabies virus have zoonotic potential, and the significance of the recently discovered feline gammaherpesvirus and morbillivirus is unknown. Thus, improved knowledge on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, prevention and control of companion animal viral infections is crucial.  

Submissions are invited from researchers working in fields relating to viral infections in companion animals. Submissions from participants presenting on this topic at the 2020 symposium of the International Society for Companion Animals (ISCAID) in Glasgow, Scotland from September 6-9, will be particularly welcome and will receive a 10% discount for Article Processing Charge.

 

Prof. Margaret Hosie
Prof. Dr. Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Companion animals
  • Cats
  • Dogs
  • Horses
  • Donkeys
  • Viral infections
  • Pathogenesis
  • Prophylaxes
  • Diagnosis
  • Therapy.

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Published Papers (29 papers)

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Editorial

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2 pages, 153 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue: Viral Infections in Companion Animals
by Margaret J. Hosie and Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
Viruses 2022, 14(2), 320; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14020320 - 04 Feb 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1508
Abstract
Companion animals, such as cats, dogs, horses and exotic species, play an important role in society; more than 600 million cats and 900 million dogs live closely with humans worldwide [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review, Other

38 pages, 9264 KiB  
Article
Modified-Live Feline Calicivirus Vaccination Elicits Cellular Immunity against a Current Feline Calicivirus Field Strain in an Experimental Feline Challenge Study
by Andrea M. Spiri, Marilisa Novacco, Marina L. Meli, Martina Stirn, Barbara Riond, Jonathan E. Fogle, Felicitas S. Boretti, Imogen Herbert, Margaret J. Hosie and Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
Viruses 2021, 13(9), 1736; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13091736 - 31 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3132
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common cat virus associated with oral ulcerations and virulent-systemic disease. Efficacious FCV vaccines protect against severe disease but not against infection. The high genetic diversity of FCV poses a challenge in vaccine design. Protection against FCV has been [...] Read more.
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common cat virus associated with oral ulcerations and virulent-systemic disease. Efficacious FCV vaccines protect against severe disease but not against infection. The high genetic diversity of FCV poses a challenge in vaccine design. Protection against FCV has been related to humoral and cellular immunity; the latter has not been studied in detail. This study investigates the cellular and humoral immune response of specified pathogen-free (SPF) cats after modified-live FCV F9 vaccinations and two heterologous FCV challenges by the analysis of lymphocyte subsets, cytokine mRNA transcription levels, interferon (IFN)-γ release assays in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), anti-FCV antibodies, and neutralisation activity. Vaccinated cats developed a Th1 cytokine response after vaccination. Vaccination resulted in antibodies with neutralising activity against the vaccine but not the challenge viruses. Remarkably, IFN-γ-releasing PBMCs were detected in vaccinated cats upon stimulation with the vaccine strain and the first heterologous FCV challenge strain. After the first experimental infection, the mRNA transcription levels of perforin, granzyme B, INF-γ, and antiviral factor MX1 and the number of IFN-γ-releasing PBMCs when stimulated with the first challenge virus were higher in vaccinated cats compared to control cats. The first FCV challenge induced crossneutralising antibodies in all cats against the second challenge virus. Before the second challenge, vaccinated cats had a higher number of IFN-γ-releasing PBMCs when stimulated with the second challenge virus than control cats. After the second FCV challenge, there were less significant differences detected between the groups regarding lymphocyte subsets and cytokine mRNA transcription levels. In conclusion, modified-live FCV vaccination induced cellular but not humoral crossimmunity in SPF cats; innate immune mechanisms, secretory and membranolytic pathways, and IFN-γ-releasing PBMCs seem to be important in the host immune defence against FCV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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35 pages, 8941 KiB  
Article
Adeno-Associated Vector-Delivered CRISPR/SaCas9 System Reduces Feline Leukemia Virus Production In Vitro
by A. Katrin Helfer-Hungerbuehler, Jimit Shah, Theres Meili, Eva Boenzli, Pengfei Li and Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1636; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13081636 - 18 Aug 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3247
Abstract
Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus of cats worldwide. High viral loads are associated with progressive infection and the death of the host, due to FeLV-associated disease. In contrast, low viral loads, an effective immune response, and a better clinical outcome can [...] Read more.
Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus of cats worldwide. High viral loads are associated with progressive infection and the death of the host, due to FeLV-associated disease. In contrast, low viral loads, an effective immune response, and a better clinical outcome can be observed in cats with regressive infection. We hypothesize that by lowering viral loads in progressively infected cats, using CRISPR/SaCas9-assisted gene therapy, the cat’s immune system may be permitted to direct the infection towards a regressive outcome. In a step towards this goal, the present study evaluates different adeno-associated vectors (AAVs) for their competence in delivering a gene editing system into feline cells, followed by investigations of the CRISPR/SaCas9 targeting efficiency for different sites within the FeLV provirus. Nine natural AAV serotypes, two AAV hybrid strains, and Anc80L65, an in silico predicted AAV ancestor, were tested for their potential to infect different feline cell lines and feline primary cells. AAV-DJ revealed superior infection efficiency and was thus employed in subsequent transduction experiments. The introduction of double-strand breaks, using the CRISPR/SaCas9 system targeting 12 selected FeLV provirus sites, was confirmed by T7 endonuclease 1 (T7E1), as well as Tracking of Indels by Decomposition (TIDE) analysis. The highest percentage (up to 80%) of nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) was found in the highly conserved gag and pol regions. Subsequent transduction experiments, using AAV-DJ, confirmed indel formation and showed a significant reduction in FeLV p27 antigen for some targets. The targeting of the FeLV provirus was efficient when using the CRISPR/SaCas9 approach in vitro. Whether the observed extent of provirus targeting will be sufficient to provide progressively FeLV-infected cats with the means to overcome the infection needs to be further investigated in vivo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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10 pages, 1033 KiB  
Article
Serological Screening for Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in Dutch Shelter Cats
by W. J. R. van der Leij, Els M. Broens, Jan Willem Hesselink, Nancy Schuurman, Johannes C. M. Vernooij and Herman F. Egberink
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1634; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13081634 - 18 Aug 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3918
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic raised concerns that companion animals might be infected with, and could become a reservoir of, SARS-CoV-2. As cats are popular pets and susceptible to Coronavirus, we investigated the seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in shelter cats housed in Dutch animal shelters [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic raised concerns that companion animals might be infected with, and could become a reservoir of, SARS-CoV-2. As cats are popular pets and susceptible to Coronavirus, we investigated the seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in shelter cats housed in Dutch animal shelters during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this large-scale cross-sectional study, serum samples of shelter cats were collected during the second wave of human COVID-19 infections in The Netherlands. Seroprevalence was determined by using an indirect protein-based ELISA validated for cats, and a Virus Neutralization Test (VNT) as confirmation. To screen for feline SARS-CoV-2 shedding, oropharyngeal and rectal swabs of cats positive for ELISA and/or VNT were analyzed using PCR tests. In 28 Dutch animal shelters, 240 shelter cats were convenience sampled. Two of these cats (0.8%; CI 95%: 0.1–3.0%) were seropositive, as evidenced by the presence of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies. The seropositive animals tested PCR negative for SARS-CoV-2. Based on the results of this study, it is unlikely that shelter cats could be a reservoir of SARS-CoV-2 or pose a (significant) risk to public health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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26 pages, 4208 KiB  
Article
Modified-Live Feline Calicivirus Vaccination Reduces Viral RNA Loads, Duration of RNAemia, and the Severity of Clinical Signs after Heterologous Feline Calicivirus Challenge
by Andrea M. Spiri, Barbara Riond, Martina Stirn, Marilisa Novacco, Marina L. Meli, Felicitas S. Boretti, Imogen Herbert, Margaret J. Hosie and Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1505; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13081505 - 30 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3768
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common cat virus causing clinical signs such as oral ulcerations, fever, reduced general condition, pneumonia, limping and occasionally virulent-systemic disease. Efficacious FCV vaccines protect against severe disease but not against infection. FCV is a highly mutagenic RNA virus [...] Read more.
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common cat virus causing clinical signs such as oral ulcerations, fever, reduced general condition, pneumonia, limping and occasionally virulent-systemic disease. Efficacious FCV vaccines protect against severe disease but not against infection. FCV is a highly mutagenic RNA virus whose high genetic diversity poses a challenge in vaccine design. The use of only one modified-live FCV strain over several decades might have driven the viral evolution towards more vaccine-resistant variants. The present study investigated the clinical signs, duration, and amount of FCV shedding, RNAemia, haematological changes and acute phase protein reaction in SPF cats after subcutaneous modified-live single strain FCV vaccination or placebo injection and two subsequent oronasal heterologous FCV challenge infections with two different field strains. Neither clinical signs nor FCV shedding from the oropharynx and FCV RNAemia were detected after vaccination. After the first experimental infection, vaccinated cats had significantly lower clinical scores, less increased body temperature and lower acute phase protein levels than control cats. The viral RNA loads from the oropharynx and duration and amount of RNAemia were significantly lower in the vaccinated animals. No clinical signs were observed in any of the cats after the second experimental infection. In conclusion, FCV vaccination was beneficial for protecting cats from severe clinical signs, reducing viral loads and inflammation after FCV challenge. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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17 pages, 14821 KiB  
Communication
SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Dogs and Cats from Southern Germany and Northern Italy during the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic
by Julia Klaus, Eric Zini, Katrin Hartmann, Herman Egberink, Anja Kipar, Michèle Bergmann, Carlo Palizzotto, Shan Zhao, Francesco Rossi, Vittoria Franco, Federico Porporato, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann and Marina L. Meli
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1453; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13081453 - 26 Jul 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 3709
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has affected millions of people globally since its first detection in late 2019. Besides humans, cats and, to some extent, dogs were shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, highlighting the need for surveillance in a One [...] Read more.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has affected millions of people globally since its first detection in late 2019. Besides humans, cats and, to some extent, dogs were shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, highlighting the need for surveillance in a One Health context. Seven veterinary clinics from regions with high incidences of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) were recruited during the early pandemic (March to July 2020) for the screening of patients. A total of 2257 oropharyngeal and nasal swab specimen from 877 dogs and 260 cats (including 18 animals from COVID-19-affected households and 92 animals with signs of respiratory disease) were analyzed for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA using reverse transcriptase real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) targeting the viral envelope (E) and RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) genes. One oropharyngeal swab from an Italian cat, living in a COVID-19-affected household in Piedmont, tested positive in RT-qPCR (1/260; 0.38%, 95% CI: 0.01–2.1%), and SARS-CoV-2 infection of the animal was serologically confirmed six months later. One oropharyngeal swab from a dog was potentially positive (1/877; 0.1%, 95% CI: 0.002–0.63%), but the result was not confirmed in a reference laboratory. Analyses of convenience sera from 118 animals identified one dog (1/94; 1.1%; 95% CI: 0.02–5.7%) from Lombardy, but no cats (0/24), as positive for anti-SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD) antibodies and neutralizing activity. These findings support the hypothesis that the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pet cat and dog populations, and hence, the risk of zoonotic transmission to veterinary staff, was low during the first wave of the pandemic, even in hotspot areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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14 pages, 1292 KiB  
Article
Prevalence of Neutralizing Antibodies to Canine Distemper Virus and Response to Vaccination in Client-Owned Adult Healthy Dogs
by Michèle Bergmann, Monika Freisl, Yury Zablotski, Md Anik Ashfaq Khan, Stephanie Speck, Uwe Truyen and Katrin Hartmann
Viruses 2021, 13(5), 945; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13050945 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4703
Abstract
Re-vaccinations against canine distemper virus (CDV) are commonly performed in 3-year intervals. The study’s aims were to determine anti-CDV antibodies in healthy adult dogs within 28 days of vaccination against CDV, and to evaluate factors associated with the presence of pre-vaccination antibodies and [...] Read more.
Re-vaccinations against canine distemper virus (CDV) are commonly performed in 3-year intervals. The study’s aims were to determine anti-CDV antibodies in healthy adult dogs within 28 days of vaccination against CDV, and to evaluate factors associated with the presence of pre-vaccination antibodies and with the antibody response to vaccination. Ninety-seven dogs, not vaccinated within 1 year before enrollment, were vaccinated with a modified live CDV vaccine. A measurement of the antibodies was performed before vaccination (day 0), on day 7, and 28 after the vaccination by virus neutralization. A response to vaccination was defined as a ≥4-fold titer increase by day 28. Fisher’s exact test was used to determine factors associated with a lack of antibodies and vaccination response. In total, 94.8% of the dogs (92/97; CI 95%: 88.2–98.1) had antibodies (≥10) prior to vaccination. A response to vaccination was not observed in any dog. Five dogs were considered humoral non-responders; these dogs neither had detectable antibodies before, nor developed antibodies after vaccination. Young age (<2 years) was significantly associated with a lack of pre-vaccination antibodies (p = 0.018; OR: 26.825; 95% CI: 1.216–1763.417). In conclusion, necessity of re-vaccination in adult healthy dogs should be debated and regular vaccinations should be replaced by antibody detection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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16 pages, 582 KiB  
Article
SARS-CoV-2 Infections and Viral Isolations among Serially Tested Cats and Dogs in Households with Infected Owners in Texas, USA
by Sarah A. Hamer, Alex Pauvolid-Corrêa, Italo B. Zecca, Edward Davila, Lisa D. Auckland, Christopher M. Roundy, Wendy Tang, Mia Kim Torchetti, Mary Lea Killian, Melinda Jenkins-Moore, Katie Mozingo, Yao Akpalu, Ria R. Ghai, Jessica R. Spengler, Casey Barton Behravesh, Rebecca S. B. Fischer and Gabriel L. Hamer
Viruses 2021, 13(5), 938; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13050938 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 126 | Viewed by 9585
Abstract
Understanding the ecological and epidemiological roles of pets in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is critical for animal and human health, identifying household reservoirs, and predicting the potential enzootic maintenance of the virus. We conducted a longitudinal household transmission study of 76 dogs and [...] Read more.
Understanding the ecological and epidemiological roles of pets in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is critical for animal and human health, identifying household reservoirs, and predicting the potential enzootic maintenance of the virus. We conducted a longitudinal household transmission study of 76 dogs and cats living with at least one SARS-CoV-2-infected human in Texas and found that 17 pets from 25.6% of 39 households met the national case definition for SARS-CoV-2 infections in animals. This includes three out of seventeen (17.6%) cats and one out of fifty-nine (1.7%) dogs that were positive by RT-PCR and sequencing, with the virus successfully isolated from the respiratory swabs of one cat and one dog. Whole-genome sequences of SARS-CoV-2 obtained from all four PCR-positive animals were unique variants grouping with genomes circulating among people with COVID-19 in Texas. Re-sampling showed persistence of viral RNA for at least 25 d-post initial test. Additionally, seven out of sixteen (43.8%) cats and seven out of fifty-nine (11.9%) dogs harbored SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies upon initial sampling, with relatively stable or increasing titers over the 2–3 months of follow-up and no evidence of seroreversion. The majority (82.4%) of infected pets were asymptomatic. ‘Reverse zoonotic’ transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from infected people to animals may occur more frequently than recognized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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11 pages, 288 KiB  
Article
A pre- and during Pandemic Survey of Sars-Cov-2 Infection in Stray Colony and Shelter Cats from a High Endemic Area of Northern Italy
by Eva Spada, Fabrizio Vitale, Federica Bruno, Germano Castelli, Stefano Reale, Roberta Perego, Luciana Baggiani and Daniela Proverbio
Viruses 2021, 13(4), 618; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13040618 - 03 Apr 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 4808
Abstract
Cats are susceptible to infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Whilst a number of studies have been performed worldwide on owned cats, limited data are available on stray, colony or shelter cats. We investigated SARS-CoV-2 infection in a stray cat [...] Read more.
Cats are susceptible to infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Whilst a number of studies have been performed worldwide on owned cats, limited data are available on stray, colony or shelter cats. We investigated SARS-CoV-2 infection in a stray cat population before and during human outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 in cities in the Lombardy region in northern Italy, a high endemic region for SARS-CoV-2, using serological and molecular methods. A cohort of different samples were collected from 241 cats, including frozen archived serum samples from 136 cats collected before the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and serum, pharyngeal and rectal swab samples from 105 cats collected during the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak. All pre-pandemic samples tested seronegative for antibodies against the nucleocapsid of SARS-CoV-2 using indirect enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test, while one serum sample collected during the pandemic was seropositive. No serological cross-reactivity was detected between SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and antibodies against feline enteric (FECV) and infectious peritonitis coronavirus (FIPC), Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV), Feline Calicivirus (FCV), Feline Herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1), Feline Parvovirus (FPV), Leishmania infantum, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., Toxoplasma gondii or Chlamydophila felis. No pharyngeal or rectal swab tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA on real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Our data show that SARS-CoV-2 did infect stray cats in Lombardy during the COVID-19 pandemic, but with lower prevalence than found in owned cats. This should alleviate public concerns about stray cats acting as SARS-CoV-2 carriers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
12 pages, 3396 KiB  
Article
Seroprevalence of Infection with Feline Morbilliviruses Is Associated with FLUTD and Increased Blood Creatinine Concentrations in Domestic Cats
by Johannes Busch, Romy M. Heilmann, Thomas W. Vahlenkamp and Michael Sieg
Viruses 2021, 13(4), 578; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13040578 - 30 Mar 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2641
Abstract
Feline morbilliviruses (FeMV) are fairly newly discovered paramyxoviruses found in cats. The first description indicated an association with widely distributed chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the host species. In various studies, a global prevalence and a further genotype, designated FeMV-2, and the involvement [...] Read more.
Feline morbilliviruses (FeMV) are fairly newly discovered paramyxoviruses found in cats. The first description indicated an association with widely distributed chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the host species. In various studies, a global prevalence and a further genotype, designated FeMV-2, and the involvement of other organ systems in infected individuals were shown. Using an immunofluorescence assay, we detected an overall seroprevalence of FeMV in almost half of the cats investigated (n = 380), with a significantly increased proportion in younger animals. In comparison to European Shorthair cats, the rate of seropositivity is higher in pedigree cats. Regardless of the breed, FeMV infection was associated with increased blood creatinine concentrations, suggesting an association with CKD. Further analysis indicated that this association was the strongest in animals having high IFA titers against FeMV-2. In addition, a significant association between FeMV-positive status and the prevalence of feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD, or idiopathic cystitis) was detected. This association was dominated by cats having antibodies against FeMV-1 only. To further evaluate the positive correlation between FeMV seroprevalence and CKD as well as FLUTD, consideration of additional clinical characteristics and laboratory parameters is warranted, and controlled infection studies with both FeMV genotypes are necessary. Clinicians should, however, be aware of a possible link between renal and lower urinary tract disease and FeMV infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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26 pages, 1631 KiB  
Article
Detection and Genome Sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in a Domestic Cat with Respiratory Signs in Switzerland
by Julia Klaus, Marina L. Meli, Barbara Willi, Sarah Nadeau, Christian Beisel, Tanja Stadler, ETH SARS-CoV-2 Sequencing Team, Herman Egberink, Shan Zhao, Hans Lutz, Barbara Riond, Nina Rösinger, Hanspeter Stalder, Sandra Renzullo and Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
Viruses 2021, 13(3), 496; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030496 - 17 Mar 2021
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 6167
Abstract
Since the emergence of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in late 2019, domestic cats have been demonstrated to be susceptible to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) under natural and experimental conditions. As pet cats often live in very close contact with their owners, it [...] Read more.
Since the emergence of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in late 2019, domestic cats have been demonstrated to be susceptible to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) under natural and experimental conditions. As pet cats often live in very close contact with their owners, it is essential to investigate SARS-CoV-2 infections in cats in a One-Health context. This study reports the first SARS-CoV-2 infection in a cat in a COVID-19-affected household in Switzerland. The cat (Cat 1) demonstrated signs of an upper respiratory tract infection, including sneezing, inappetence, and apathy, while the cohabiting cat (Cat 2) remained asymptomatic. Nasal, oral, fecal, fur, and environmental swab samples were collected twice from both cats and analyzed by RT-qPCR for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA. Both nasal swabs from Cat 1 tested positive. In addition, the first oral swab from Cat 2 and fur and bedding swabs from both cats were RT-qPCR positive. The fecal swabs tested negative. The infection of Cat 1 was confirmed by positive SARS-CoV-2 S1 receptor binding domain (RBD) antibody testing and neutralizing activity in a surrogate assay. The viral genome sequence from Cat 1, obtained by next generation sequencing, showed the closest relation to a human sequence from the B.1.1.39 lineage, with one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) difference. This study demonstrates not only SARS-CoV-2 infection of a cat from a COVID-19-affected household but also contamination of the cats’ fur and bed with viral RNA. Our results are important to create awareness that SARS-CoV-2 infected people should observe hygienic measures to avoid infection and contamination of animal cohabitants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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22 pages, 4745 KiB  
Article
Measuring the Humoral Immune Response in Cats Exposed to Feline Leukaemia Virus
by Yasmin A. Parr, Melissa J. Beall, Julie K. Levy, Michael McDonald, Natascha T. Hamman, Brian J. Willett and Margaret J. Hosie
Viruses 2021, 13(3), 428; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030428 - 07 Mar 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3812
Abstract
Retroviruses belong to an important and diverse family of RNA viruses capable of causing neoplastic disease in their hosts. Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) is a gammaretrovirus that infects domestic and wild cats, causing immunodeficiency, cytopenia and neoplasia in progressively infected cats. The outcome [...] Read more.
Retroviruses belong to an important and diverse family of RNA viruses capable of causing neoplastic disease in their hosts. Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) is a gammaretrovirus that infects domestic and wild cats, causing immunodeficiency, cytopenia and neoplasia in progressively infected cats. The outcome of FeLV infection is influenced by the host immune response; progressively infected cats demonstrate weaker immune responses compared to regressively infected cats. In this study, humoral immune responses were examined in 180 samples collected from 123 domestic cats that had been naturally exposed to FeLV, using a novel ELISA to measure antibodies recognizing the FeLV surface unit (SU) glycoprotein in plasma samples. A correlation was demonstrated between the strength of the humoral immune response to the SU protein and the outcome of exposure. Cats with regressive infection demonstrated higher antibody responses to the SU protein compared to cats belonging to other outcome groups, and samples from cats with regressive infection contained virus neutralising antibodies. These results demonstrate that an ELISA that assesses the humoral response to FeLV SU complements the use of viral diagnostic tests to define the outcome of exposure to FeLV. Together these tests could allow the rapid identification of regressively infected cats that are unlikely to develop FeLV-related disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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16 pages, 1338 KiB  
Article
Feline Leukemia Virus p27 Antigen Concentration and Proviral DNA Load Are Associated with Survival in Naturally Infected Cats
by Melissa J. Beall, Jesse Buch, Genevieve Clark, Marko Estrada, Andrei Rakitin, Natascha T. Hamman, Monica K. Frenden, Ellen P. Jefferson, E. Susan Amirian and Julie K. Levy
Viruses 2021, 13(2), 302; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13020302 - 15 Feb 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6110
Abstract
Longitudinal studies of cats naturally infected with feline leukemia virus (FeLV) are important for understanding disease outcomes. Levels of p27 antigen and copy numbers of proviral DNA have been associated with FeLV-infection courses. The purpose of this prospective study was to establish cutoff [...] Read more.
Longitudinal studies of cats naturally infected with feline leukemia virus (FeLV) are important for understanding disease outcomes. Levels of p27 antigen and copy numbers of proviral DNA have been associated with FeLV-infection courses. The purpose of this prospective study was to establish cutoff values for p27 antigen concentration and proviral DNA load that distinguished high positive from low positive groups of cats and to evaluate an association with survival. At enrollment, 254 cats were tested by point-of-care and microtiter plate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for p27 antigen and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for proviral DNA. The 127 positive cats were retested monthly for six months and monitored for survival over the four-year study. A receiver operating characteristic-based analysis of samples with concordant or discordant qualitative results for p27 antigen and proviral DNA was used to establish cutoff values, and when applied to test results at enrollment for classifying cats as high positive or low positive, a significant difference in survival was observed. High positive cats had a median survival of 1.37 years (95% CI 0.83–2.02) from time of enrollment, while most low positive cats were still alive (93.1% survival). Quantitative results for p27 antigen concentration and proviral DNA load were highly correlated with survival times in FeLV-infected cats. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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11 pages, 903 KiB  
Communication
A Canine Distemper Virus Retrospective Study Conducted from 2011 to 2019 in Central Italy (Latium and Tuscany Regions)
by Ida Ricci, Antonella Cersini, Giuseppe Manna, Gaetana Anita Marcario, Raffaella Conti, Giuseppina Brocherel, Goffredo Grifoni, Claudia Eleni and Maria Teresa Scicluna
Viruses 2021, 13(2), 272; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13020272 - 10 Feb 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2742
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a highly lethal contagious viral pathogen mainly found in domestic and wild canids and mustelids. Although, in Italy, circulating strains of Europe 1, Europe wildlife and Arctic type are reported, data relating to Latium and Tuscany regions are [...] Read more.
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a highly lethal contagious viral pathogen mainly found in domestic and wild canids and mustelids. Although, in Italy, circulating strains of Europe 1, Europe wildlife and Arctic type are reported, data relating to Latium and Tuscany regions are limited. In view of this, through passive surveillance, we investigated the presence of CDV and which strains were circulating in these Regions. From March 2017 to October 2019, a group of 122 subjects were tested for CDV using a PCR protocol described in the literature, with 12 detected positive; analyses were carried out on a set of target samples (brain and lung, conjunctival, nasal and rectal swabs, urine or swab from bladder and intracardiac clot) that was defined for the detection of CDV in both live and dead animals. The rectal swab, easily collected also from live animals, represented the most suitable sample for CDV diagnosis, with 9 positive of the 11 (81.82%) tested. In addition, brain and lung of 15 subjects out of 181 susceptible animals collected between 2011 and 2018, during post mortem investigations in routine diagnostic activity, were CDV positive. Molecular analyses of all positive samples, using a 287 bp fragment located within the conserved N terminus of the morbillivirus nucleoprotein gene, detected the circulation of strain CDV599/2016 (KX545421.1) belonging to the “Europe wildlife” lineage, and of strain CDV12254/2015 (KX024709.1), belonging to the Arctic-lineage, thus confirming the co-circulation of the two lineages, as already noted in previous studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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18 pages, 1774 KiB  
Article
Anti-SU Antibody Responses in Client-Owned Cats Following Vaccination against Feline Leukaemia Virus with Two Inactivated Whole-Virus Vaccines (Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K and Fel-O-Vax® 5)
by Mark Westman, Jacqueline Norris, Richard Malik, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann, Yasmin A. Parr, Emma Armstrong, Mike McDonald, Evelyn Hall, Paul Sheehy and Margaret J. Hosie
Viruses 2021, 13(2), 240; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13020240 - 03 Feb 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3394
Abstract
A field study undertaken in Australia compared the antibody responses induced in client-owned cats that had been vaccinated using two inactivated whole feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) vaccines, the monovalent vaccine Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K and the polyvalent vaccine Fel-O-Vax® 5. Serum samples from [...] Read more.
A field study undertaken in Australia compared the antibody responses induced in client-owned cats that had been vaccinated using two inactivated whole feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) vaccines, the monovalent vaccine Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K and the polyvalent vaccine Fel-O-Vax® 5. Serum samples from 428 FeLV-uninfected cats (118 FeLV-vaccinated and 310 FeLV-unvaccinated) were tested for anti-FeLV neutralising antibodies (NAb) using a live virus neutralisation assay to identify 378 FeLV-unexposed (NAb-negative) and 50 FeLV-exposed (NAb-positive; abortive infections) cats, following by anti-surface unit (SU) FeLV-A and FeLV-B antibody ELISA testing. An additional 42 FeLV-infected cats (28 presumptively regressively infected, 14 presumptively progressively infected) were also tested for anti-SU antibodies. NAb-positive cats displayed significantly higher anti-SU antibody ELISA responses compared to NAb-negative cats (p < 0.001). FeLV-unexposed cats (NAb-negative) that had been vaccinated less than 18 months after a previous FeLV vaccination using the monovalent vaccine (Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K) displayed higher anti-SU antibody ELISA responses than a comparable group vaccinated with the polyvalent vaccine (Fel-O-Vax® 5) (p < 0.001 for both anti-FeLV-A and FeLV-B SU antibody responses). This difference in anti-SU antibody responses between cats vaccinated with the monovalent or polyvalent vaccine, however, was not observed in cats that had been naturally exposed to FeLV (NAb-positive) (p = 0.33). It was postulated that vaccination with Fel-O-Vax® 5 primed the humoral response prior to FeLV exposure, such that antibody production increased when the animal was challenged, while vaccination with Fel-O-Vax® Lv-K induced an immediate preparatory antibody response that did not quantitatively increase after FeLV exposure. These results raise questions about the comparable vaccine efficacy of the different FeLV vaccine formulations and correlates of protection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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17 pages, 276 KiB  
Article
Diagnostic Value of Detecting Feline Coronavirus RNA and Spike Gene Mutations in Cerebrospinal Fluid to Confirm Feline Infectious Peritonitis
by Sandra Felten, Kaspar Matiasek, Christian M. Leutenegger, Laura Sangl, Stephanie Herre, Stefanie Dörfelt, Andrea Fischer and Katrin Hartmann
Viruses 2021, 13(2), 186; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13020186 - 27 Jan 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2968
Abstract
Background: Cats with neurologic feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) are difficult to diagnose. Aim of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of detecting feline coronavirus (FCoV) RNA and spike (S) gene mutations in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Methods: The study included 30 cats [...] Read more.
Background: Cats with neurologic feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) are difficult to diagnose. Aim of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of detecting feline coronavirus (FCoV) RNA and spike (S) gene mutations in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Methods: The study included 30 cats with confirmed FIP (six with neurological signs) and 29 control cats (eleven with neurological signs) with other diseases resulting in similar clinical signs. CSF was tested for FCoV RNA by 7b-RT-qPCR in all cats. In RT-qPCR-positive cases, S-RT-qPCR was additionally performed to identify spike gene mutations. Results: Nine cats with FIP (9/30, 30%), but none of the control cats were positive for FCoV RNA in CSF. Sensitivity of 7b-RT-qPCR in CSF was higher for cats with neurological FIP (83.3%; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 41.8–98.9) than for cats with non-neurological FIP (16.7%; 95% CI 6.1–36.5). Spike gene mutations were rarely detected. Conclusions: FCoV RNA was frequently present in CSF of cats with neurological FIP, but only rarely in cats with non-neurological FIP. Screening for spike gene mutations did not enhance specificity in this patient group. Larger populations of cats with neurological FIP should be explored in future studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
8 pages, 245 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of a Point-of-Care Test for Pre-Vaccination Testing to Detect Antibodies against Canine Adenoviruses in Dogs
by Michèle Bergmann, Mike Holzheu, Yury Zablotski, Stephanie Speck, Uwe Truyen and Katrin Hartmann
Viruses 2021, 13(2), 183; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13020183 - 26 Jan 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2161
Abstract
(1) Background: Antibody testing is commonly used to assess a dog’s immune status. For detection of antibodies against canine adenoviruses (CAVs), one point-of-care (POC) test is available. This study assessed the POC test´s performance. (2) Methods: Sera of 198 privately owned dogs and [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Antibody testing is commonly used to assess a dog’s immune status. For detection of antibodies against canine adenoviruses (CAVs), one point-of-care (POC) test is available. This study assessed the POC test´s performance. (2) Methods: Sera of 198 privately owned dogs and 40 specific pathogen-free (SPF) dogs were included. The reference standard for detection of anti-CAV antibodies was virus neutralization (VN) using CAV-1 and CAV-2 antigens. Specificity, sensitivity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and overall accuracy (OA) of the POC test were assessed. Specificity was considered most important. (3) Results: Prevalence of CAV-1 neutralizing antibodies (≥10) was 76% (182/238) in all dogs, 92% (182/198) in the subgroup of privately owned dogs, and 0% (0/40) in SPF dogs. Prevalence of CAV-2 neutralizing antibodies (≥10) was 76% (181/238) in all dogs, 91% (181/198) in privately owned dogs, and 0% (0/40) in SPF dogs. Specificity for detection of CAV-1 antibodies was lower (overall dogs, 88%; privately owned dogs, 56%; SPF dogs, 100%) compared with specificity for detection of CAV-2 antibodies (overall dogs, 90%; privately owned dogs, 65%; SPF dogs, 100%). (4) Conclusions: Since false positive results will lead to potentially unprotected dogs not being vaccinated, specificity should be improved to reliably detect anti-CAV antibodies that prevent infectious canine hepatitis in dogs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
10 pages, 1323 KiB  
Article
Identification of Novel Astroviruses in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Domestic Cats
by Kate Van Brussel, Xiuwan Wang, Mang Shi, Maura Carrai, Jun Li, Vito Martella, Julia A. Beatty, Edward C. Holmes and Vanessa R. Barrs
Viruses 2020, 12(11), 1301; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v12111301 - 12 Nov 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3251
Abstract
Astroviruses, isolated from numerous avian and mammalian species including humans, are commonly associated with enteritis and encephalitis. Two astroviruses have previously been identified in cats, and while definitive evidence is lacking, an association with enteritis is suggested. Using metagenomic next-generation sequencing of viral [...] Read more.
Astroviruses, isolated from numerous avian and mammalian species including humans, are commonly associated with enteritis and encephalitis. Two astroviruses have previously been identified in cats, and while definitive evidence is lacking, an association with enteritis is suggested. Using metagenomic next-generation sequencing of viral nucleic acids from faecal samples, we identified two novel feline astroviruses termed Feline astrovirus 3 and 4. These viruses were isolated from healthy shelter-housed kittens (Feline astrovirus 3; 6448 bp) and from a kitten with diarrhoea that was co-infected with Feline parvovirus (Feline astrovirus 4, 6549 bp). Both novel astroviruses shared a genome arrangement of three open reading frames (ORFs) comparable to that of other astroviruses. Phylogenetic analysis of the concatenated ORFs, ORF1a, ORF1b and capsid protein revealed that both viruses were phylogenetically distinct from other feline astroviruses, although their precise evolutionary history could not be accurately determined due to a lack of resolution at key nodes. Large-scale molecular surveillance studies of healthy and diseased cats are needed to determine the pathogenicity of feline astroviruses as single virus infections or in co-infections with other enteric viruses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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14 pages, 272 KiB  
Article
Antibody Response to Canine Adenovirus-2 Virus Vaccination in Healthy Adult Dogs
by Michèle Bergmann, Monika Freisl, Yury Zablotski, Stephanie Speck, Uwe Truyen and Katrin Hartmann
Viruses 2020, 12(10), 1198; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v12101198 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2455
Abstract
Background: Re-vaccination against canine adenovirus (CAV) is performed in ≤3-year-intervals but their necessity is unknown. The study determined anti-CAV antibodies within 28 days of re-vaccination and factors associated with the absence of antibodies and vaccination response. Methods: Ninety-seven healthy adult dogs (last vaccination [...] Read more.
Background: Re-vaccination against canine adenovirus (CAV) is performed in ≤3-year-intervals but their necessity is unknown. The study determined anti-CAV antibodies within 28 days of re-vaccination and factors associated with the absence of antibodies and vaccination response. Methods: Ninety-seven healthy adult dogs (last vaccination ≥12 months) were re-vaccinated with a modified live CAV-2 vaccine. Anti-CAV antibodies were measured before vaccination (day 0), and after re-vaccination (day 7, 28) by virus neutralization. A ≥4-fold titer increase was defined as vaccination response. Fisher’s exact test and multivariate regression analysis were performed to determine factors associated with the absence of antibodies and vaccination response. Results: Totally, 87% of dogs (90/97; 95% CI: 85.61–96.70) had anti-CAV antibodies (≥10) before re-vaccination. Vaccination response was observed in 6% of dogs (6/97; 95% CI: 2.60–13.11). Time since last vaccination (>3–5 years, OR = 9.375, p = 0.020; >5 years, OR= 25.000, p = 0.006) was associated with a lack of antibodies. Dogs from urban areas were more likely to respond to vaccination (p = 0.037). Conclusion: Many dogs had anti-CAV pre-vaccination antibodies, even those with an incomplete vaccination series. Most dogs did not respond to re-vaccination. Based on this study, dogs should be re-vaccinated every 3 years or antibodies should be determined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
13 pages, 245 KiB  
Article
Prevalence of Feline Coronavirus Shedding in German Catteries and Associated Risk Factors
by Ute Klein-Richers, Katrin Hartmann, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann, Stefan Unterer, Michèle Bergmann, Anna Rieger, Christian Leutenegger, Nikola Pantchev, Jörg Balzer and Sandra Felten
Viruses 2020, 12(9), 1000; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v12091000 - 08 Sep 2020
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5435
Abstract
The aim of this prospective study was to determine prevalence and potential risk factors of feline coronavirus (FCoV) shedding. Four consecutive fecal samples of 179 cats from 37 German breeding catteries were analyzed for FCoV ribonucleic acid (RNA) by real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase [...] Read more.
The aim of this prospective study was to determine prevalence and potential risk factors of feline coronavirus (FCoV) shedding. Four consecutive fecal samples of 179 cats from 37 German breeding catteries were analyzed for FCoV ribonucleic acid (RNA) by real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Prevalence of shedding was calculated using different numbers of fecal samples per cat (1–4) and different sampling intervals (5–28 days). Information on potential risk factors for FCoV shedding was obtained by a questionnaire. Risk factor analysis was performed using a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM). Most cats (137/179, 76.5%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 69.8–82.2) shed FCoV at least at once. None of the tested 37 catteries was free of FCoV. Prevalence calculated including all four (76.5%, 95% CI 69.8–82.2) or the last three (73.7%, 95% CI 66.8–79.7) samples per cat was significantly higher than the prevalence calculated with only the last sample (61.5%, 95% CI 54.2–68.3; p = 0.0029 and 0.0175, respectively). Young age was significantly associated with FCoV shedding while the other factors were not. For identification of FCoV shedders in multi-cat households, at least three fecal samples per cat should be analyzed. Young age is the most important risk factor for FCoV shedding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
14 pages, 718 KiB  
Article
Treatment with Class A CpG Oligodeoxynucleotides in Cats with Naturally Occurring Feline Parvovirus Infection: A Prospective Study
by Filippo Ferri, Federico Porporato, Francesco Rossi, Daniela Enache, Carolina Callegari, Gabriele Gerardi, Luigi M. Coppola, Barbara Contiero, Chiara Crinò, Neda Ranjbar Kohan, Marina L. Meli, Hans Lutz, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann and Eric Zini
Viruses 2020, 12(6), 640; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v12060640 - 12 Jun 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3160
Abstract
Feline parvovirus (FPV) causes severe gastroenteritis and leukopenia in cats; the outcome is poor. Information regarding specific treatments is lacking. Class A CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-A) are short single-stranded DNAs, stimulating type I interferon production. In cats, CpG-A induced an antiviral response in vivo [...] Read more.
Feline parvovirus (FPV) causes severe gastroenteritis and leukopenia in cats; the outcome is poor. Information regarding specific treatments is lacking. Class A CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-A) are short single-stranded DNAs, stimulating type I interferon production. In cats, CpG-A induced an antiviral response in vivo and inhibited FPV replication in vitro. The aim was to prospectively investigate the effects of CpG-A on survival, clinical score, hematological findings, antiviral response (cytokines), viremia, and fecal shedding (real-time qPCR) in cats naturally infected with FPV. Forty-two FPV-infected cats were randomized to receive 100 µg/kg of CpG-A (n = 22) or placebo (n = 20) subcutaneously, on admission and after 48 h. Blood and fecal samples were collected on admission, after 1, 3, and 7 days. All 22 cats showed short duration pain during CpG-A injections. The survival rate, clinical score, leukocyte and erythrocyte counts, viremia, and fecal shedding at any time-point did not differ between cats treated with CpG-A (50%) and placebo (40%). Antiviral myxovirus resistance (Mx) gene transcription increased in both groups from day 1 to 3 (p = 0.005). Antibodies against FPV on admission were associated with survival in cats (p = 0.002). In conclusion, CpG-A treatment did not improve the outcome in cats with FPV infection. FPV infection produced an antiviral response. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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9 pages, 2552 KiB  
Communication
Antiviral Effects of Hydroxychloroquine and Type I Interferon on In Vitro Fatal Feline Coronavirus Infection
by Tomomi Takano, Kumi Satoh, Tomoyoshi Doki, Taishi Tanabe and Tsutomu Hohdatsu
Viruses 2020, 12(5), 576; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v12050576 - 24 May 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5479
Abstract
Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is a viral disease with a high morbidity and mortality by the FIP virus (FIPV, virulent feline coronavirus). Several antiviral drugs for FIP have been identified, but many of these are expensive and not available in veterinary medicine. Hydroxychloroquine [...] Read more.
Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is a viral disease with a high morbidity and mortality by the FIP virus (FIPV, virulent feline coronavirus). Several antiviral drugs for FIP have been identified, but many of these are expensive and not available in veterinary medicine. Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is a drug approved by several countries to treat malaria and immune-mediated diseases in humans, and its antiviral effects on other viral infections (e.g., SARS-CoV-2, dengue virus) have been confirmed. We investigated whether HCQ in association with interferon-ω (IFN-ω) is effective for FIPV in vitro. A total of 100 μM of HCQ significantly inhibited the replication of types I and II FIPV. Interestingly, the combination of 100 μM of HCQ and 104 U/mL of recombinant feline IFN-ω (rfIFN-ω, veterinary registered drug) increased its antiviral activity against type I FIPV infection. Our study suggested that HCQ and rfIFN-ω are applicable for treatment of FIP. Further clinical studies are needed to verify the combination of HCQ and rIFN-ω will be effective and safe treatment for cats with FIP. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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14 pages, 3249 KiB  
Article
An RNA-Directed Gene Editing Strategy for Attenuating the Infectious Potential of Feline Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Cells: A Proof of Concept
by Brian G. Murphy, Tatiana Wolf, Helena Vogel, Diego Castillo and Kevin Woolard
Viruses 2020, 12(5), 511; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v12050511 - 05 May 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2943
Abstract
Modern antiretroviral therapy for immunodeficiency viruses, although remarkably effective in controlling viral transcription, and overt virus-associated morbidity, has failed to absolutely eradicate retroviruses from their infected hosts as a result of proviral integration in long-lived reservoir cells. Immunodeficiency virus-infected patients are therefore consigned [...] Read more.
Modern antiretroviral therapy for immunodeficiency viruses, although remarkably effective in controlling viral transcription, and overt virus-associated morbidity, has failed to absolutely eradicate retroviruses from their infected hosts as a result of proviral integration in long-lived reservoir cells. Immunodeficiency virus-infected patients are therefore consigned to lifelong antiviral therapy as a means to control viremia, viral transmission, and infection-associated morbidity. Unfortunately, lifelong antiviral therapies can be difficult for patients to continuously maintain and may be associated with therapy-specific morbidities. Patient advocates have argued for new methods to achieve retroviral eradication. As a proof-of-concept study, a lentivirus-delivered RNA-directed gene editing strategy was utilized in a series of in vitro experiments in an attempt to attenuate the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) proviral load, viral transcription, and production of infectious virions. We found that a feline T lymphocyte cell line (MCH5-4) treated with an FIV-specific clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated protein 9 (Cas9) gene editing tool resulted in a reduction of cell-free viral RNA relative to control cells. Decreased infectious potential was demonstrated in a two-step FIV infection study—naïve MCH5-4 cells infected with cell-free FIV harvested from FIV-infected and CRISPR lentivirus-treated cells had less integrated proviral DNA than control cells. This study represents the initial steps towards the development of an effective method of proviral eradication in an immunodeficiency virus-infected host. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research, Other

9 pages, 471 KiB  
Review
Influenza Virus Infections in Cats
by Tadeusz Frymus, Sándor Belák, Herman Egberink, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann, Fulvio Marsilio, Diane D. Addie, Corine Boucraut-Baralon, Katrin Hartmann, Albert Lloret, Hans Lutz, Maria Grazia Pennisi, Etienne Thiry, Uwe Truyen, Séverine Tasker, Karin Möstl and Margaret J. Hosie
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1435; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13081435 - 23 Jul 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7550
Abstract
In the past, cats were considered resistant to influenza. Today, we know that they are susceptible to some influenza A viruses (IAVs) originating in other species. Usually, the outcome is only subclinical infection or a mild fever. However, outbreaks of feline disease caused [...] Read more.
In the past, cats were considered resistant to influenza. Today, we know that they are susceptible to some influenza A viruses (IAVs) originating in other species. Usually, the outcome is only subclinical infection or a mild fever. However, outbreaks of feline disease caused by canine H3N2 IAV with fever, tachypnoea, sneezing, coughing, dyspnoea and lethargy are occasionally noted in shelters. In one such outbreak, the morbidity rate was 100% and the mortality rate was 40%. Recently, avian H7N2 IAV infection occurred in cats in some shelters in the USA, inducing mostly mild respiratory disease. Furthermore, cats are susceptible to experimental infection with the human H3N2 IAV that caused the pandemic in 1968. Several studies indicated that cats worldwide could be infected by H1N1 IAV during the subsequent human pandemic in 2009. In one shelter, severe cases with fatalities were noted. Finally, the highly pathogenic avian H5N1 IAV can induce a severe, fatal disease in cats, and can spread via cat-to-cat contact. In this review, the Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, summarises current data regarding the aetiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical picture, diagnostics, and control of feline IAV infections, as well as the zoonotic risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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13 pages, 308 KiB  
Review
Anthropogenic Infection of Cats during the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic
by Margaret J. Hosie, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann, Katrin Hartmann, Herman Egberink, Uwe Truyen, Diane D. Addie, Sándor Belák, Corine Boucraut-Baralon, Tadeusz Frymus, Albert Lloret, Hans Lutz, Fulvio Marsilio, Maria Grazia Pennisi, Séverine Tasker, Etienne Thiry and Karin Möstl
Viruses 2021, 13(2), 185; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13020185 - 26 Jan 2021
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 11628
Abstract
COVID-19 is a severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) caused by a new coronavirus (CoV), SARS-CoV-2, which is closely related to SARS-CoV that jumped the animal–human species barrier and caused a disease outbreak in 2003. SARS-CoV-2 is a betacoronavirus that was first described in [...] Read more.
COVID-19 is a severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) caused by a new coronavirus (CoV), SARS-CoV-2, which is closely related to SARS-CoV that jumped the animal–human species barrier and caused a disease outbreak in 2003. SARS-CoV-2 is a betacoronavirus that was first described in 2019, unrelated to the commonly occurring feline coronavirus (FCoV) that is an alphacoronavirus associated with feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). SARS-CoV-2 is highly contagious and has spread globally within a few months, resulting in the current pandemic. Felids have been shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Particularly in the Western world, many people live in very close contact with their pet cats, and natural infections of cats in COVID-19-positive households have been described in several countries. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European Countries, discusses the current status of SARS-CoV infections in cats. The review examines the host range of SARS-CoV-2 and human-to-animal transmissions, including infections in domestic and non-domestic felids, as well as mink-to-human/-cat transmission. It summarises current data on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in domestic cats and the results of experimental infections of cats and provides expert opinions on the clinical relevance and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection in cats. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
22 pages, 2962 KiB  
Review
Coronavirus Infections in Companion Animals: Virology, Epidemiology, Clinical and Pathologic Features
by Christine Haake, Sarah Cook, Nicola Pusterla and Brian Murphy
Viruses 2020, 12(9), 1023; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v12091023 - 13 Sep 2020
Cited by 68 | Viewed by 12599
Abstract
Coronaviruses are enveloped RNA viruses capable of causing respiratory, enteric, or systemic diseases in a variety of mammalian hosts that vary in clinical severity from subclinical to fatal. The host range and tissue tropism are largely determined by the coronaviral spike protein, which [...] Read more.
Coronaviruses are enveloped RNA viruses capable of causing respiratory, enteric, or systemic diseases in a variety of mammalian hosts that vary in clinical severity from subclinical to fatal. The host range and tissue tropism are largely determined by the coronaviral spike protein, which initiates cellular infection by promoting fusion of the viral and host cell membranes. Companion animal coronaviruses responsible for causing enteric infection include feline enteric coronavirus, ferret enteric coronavirus, canine enteric coronavirus, equine coronavirus, and alpaca enteric coronavirus, while canine respiratory coronavirus and alpaca respiratory coronavirus result in respiratory infection. Ferret systemic coronavirus and feline infectious peritonitis virus, a mutated feline enteric coronavirus, can lead to lethal immuno-inflammatory systemic disease. Recent human viral pandemics, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and most recently, COVID-19, all thought to originate from bat coronaviruses, demonstrate the zoonotic potential of coronaviruses and their potential to have devastating impacts. A better understanding of the coronaviruses of companion animals, their capacity for cross-species transmission, and the sharing of genetic information may facilitate improved prevention and control strategies for future emerging zoonotic coronaviruses. This article reviews the clinical, epidemiologic, virologic, and pathologic characteristics of nine important coronaviruses of companion animals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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6 pages, 447 KiB  
Brief Report
The Second Wave of SARS-CoV-2 Circulation—Antibody Detection in the Domestic Cat Population in Germany
by Anna Michelitsch, Jacob Schön, Donata Hoffmann, Martin Beer and Kerstin Wernike
Viruses 2021, 13(6), 1009; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13061009 - 27 May 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4673
Abstract
Registered cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections in the German human population increased rapidly during the second wave of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in winter 2020/21. Since domestic cats are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, the occurrence of trans-species transmission needs to [...] Read more.
Registered cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections in the German human population increased rapidly during the second wave of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in winter 2020/21. Since domestic cats are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, the occurrence of trans-species transmission needs to be monitored. A previous serosurvey during the first wave of the pandemic detected antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in 0.65% of feline serum samples that were randomly sampled across Germany. In the here-presented follow-up study that was conducted from September 2020 to February 2021, the seroprevalence rose to 1.36% (16/1173). This doubling of the seroprevalence in cats is in line with the rise of reported cases in the human population and indicates a continuous occurrence of trans-species transmission from infected owners to their cats. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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7 pages, 834 KiB  
Brief Report
Circovirus in Blood of a Febrile Horse with Hepatitis
by Alvin Hui, Eda Altan, Nathan Slovis, Caitlin Fletcher, Xutao Deng and Eric Delwart
Viruses 2021, 13(5), 944; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13050944 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2732
Abstract
Circoviruses infect vertebrates where they can result in a wide range of disease signs or in asymptomatic infections. Using viral metagenomics we analyzed a pool of five sera from four healthy and one sick horse. Sequences from parvovirus-H, equus anellovirus, and distantly related [...] Read more.
Circoviruses infect vertebrates where they can result in a wide range of disease signs or in asymptomatic infections. Using viral metagenomics we analyzed a pool of five sera from four healthy and one sick horse. Sequences from parvovirus-H, equus anellovirus, and distantly related to mammalian circoviruses were recognized. PCR identified the circovirus reads as originating from a pregnant mare with fever and hepatitis. That horse’s serum was also positive by real time PCR for equine parvovirus H and negative for the flavivirus equine hepacivirus. The complete circular genome of equine circovirus 1 strain Charaf (EqCV1-Charaf) was completed using PCR and Sanger sequencing. EqCV1 replicase showed 73–74% identity to those of their closest relatives, pig circoviruses 1/2, and elk circovirus. The closest capsid proteins were from the same ungulate circoviruses with 62–63% identity. The overall nucleotide identity of 72% to its closest relative indicates that EqCV1 is a new species in the Circovirus genus, the first reported in genus Equus. Whether EqCV1 alone or in co-infections can result in disease and its prevalence in different equine populations will require further studies now facilitated using EqCV1′s genome sequence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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10 pages, 677 KiB  
Case Report
SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Antibody Response in a Symptomatic Cat from Italy with Intestinal B-Cell Lymphoma
by Julia Klaus, Carlo Palizzotto, Eric Zini, Marina L. Meli, Chiara Leo, Herman Egberink, Shan Zhao and Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
Viruses 2021, 13(3), 527; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030527 - 23 Mar 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4000
Abstract
Since the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic was first identified in early 2020, rare cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in pet cats have been reported worldwide. Some reports of cats with SARS-CoV-2 showed self-limiting respiratory or gastrointestinal disease after suspected [...] Read more.
Since the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic was first identified in early 2020, rare cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in pet cats have been reported worldwide. Some reports of cats with SARS-CoV-2 showed self-limiting respiratory or gastrointestinal disease after suspected human-to-feline transmission via close contact with humans with SARS-CoV-2. In the present study, we investigated a cat with SARS-CoV-2 that was presented to a private animal clinic in Northern Italy in May 2020 in a weak clinical condition due to an underlying intestinal B-cell lymphoma. The cat developed signs of respiratory tract disease, including a sneeze, a cough and ocular discharge, three days after an oropharyngeal swab tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA using two real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assays for the envelope (E) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene. Thus, SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA was detectable prior to the onset of clinical signs. Five and six months after positive molecular results, the serological testing substantiated the presence of a SARS-CoV-2 infection in the cat with the detection of anti-SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD) immunoglobulin (IgG) antibodies and neutralizing activity in a surrogate virus neutralization assay (sVNT). To the best of our knowledge, this extends the known duration of seropositivity of SARS-CoV-2 in a cat. Our study provides further evidence that cats are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 under natural conditions and strengthens the assumption that comorbidities may play a role in the development of clinical disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections in Companion Animals)
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