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Viruses
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The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and...
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The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Human Virology and Viral Diseases".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 19517

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Erik De Clercq

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Guest Editor
Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
Interests: HIV/AIDS; antiretroviral therapy
Prof. Dr. Caijun Sun

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
Interests: vaccine; innate immunity; antiviral drugs; HIV-1; SARS-CoV-2; influenza
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Guangdi Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Epidemiology, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
Interests: genome-wide diversity; coevolution and interaction of HIV, HBV and HCV; the development of antiviral drugs and vaccines
Prof. Dr. Bin Su

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Beijing 100069, China
Interests: HIV/AIDS; immune reconstitution/restoration; antiretroviral therapy; neutralizing antibody; antibody functions; humoral immune response; acute HIV infection

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Since its discovery in 1981, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has been persistently rampant as one of the mostly severe challenges for global public health. Although there are no cures or preventive vaccines, after the unremitting efforts of numerous scientists and physicians during the last 40 years, AIDS has been turned from a fast-fatal disease to a manageable chronic one. To celebrate the upcoming arrival of World AIDS Day (1 December) in this special year (40th anniversary for the first clinical AIDS case report), we initiated this Special Issue: “The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond”.

In this Special Issue, we welcome novel findings related to prevention and control of HIV infection, included but not limited to pathogenesis, new drug discoveries, functional cure strategies, vaccine researches, drug resistance, animal infection models, clinical trials, etc.

Prof. Dr. Erik De Clercq
Prof. Dr. Caijun Sun
Prof. Dr. Guangdi Li
Prof. Dr. Bin Su
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • HIV/AIDS
  • Pathogenesis
  • Drug discovery
  • Functional cure
  • HIV vaccine
  • Animal infection model
  • Clinical trials

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 348 KiB  
Editorial
1984—Discovery of the First Anti-HIV Drug, Suramin
by Erik De Clercq
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1646; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13081646 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2513
Abstract
In 2021, we commemorate the 40th anniversary of the identification of the disease AIDS, the acquired immune deficiency syndrome, a name that for the first time in history was launched in 1981 [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond)
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Research

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10 pages, 301 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Genital Ulcers on HIV Transmission Has Been Underestimated—A Critical Review
by João Dinis Sousa, Viktor Müller and Anne-Mieke Vandamme
Viruses 2022, 14(3), 538; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14030538 - 05 Mar 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1579
Abstract
In the early 1990s, several observational studies determined that genital ulcer disease (GUD), in either the index or the exposed person, facilitates HIV transmission. Several meta-analyses have since presented associated risk ratios (RR) over the baseline per-act transmission probability (PATP) usually in the [...] Read more.
In the early 1990s, several observational studies determined that genital ulcer disease (GUD), in either the index or the exposed person, facilitates HIV transmission. Several meta-analyses have since presented associated risk ratios (RR) over the baseline per-act transmission probability (PATP) usually in the range of 2–5. Here we review all relevant observational studies and meta-analyses, and show that the estimation of RRs was, in most cases, biased by assuming the presence of GUD at any time during long follow-up periods, while active genital ulcers were present in a small proportion of the time. Only two studies measured the GUD co-factor effect in PATPs focusing on acts in which ulcers were present, and both found much higher RRs (in the range 11–112). We demonstrate that these high RRs can be reconciled with the studies on which currently accepted low RRs were based, if the calculations are restricted to the actual GUD episodes. Our results indicate that the effect of genital ulcers on the PATP of HIV might be much greater than currently accepted. We conclude that the medical community should work on the assumption that HIV risk is very high during active genital ulcers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond)
18 pages, 282 KiB  
Article
Comparing Immune Responses to Inactivated Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 between People Living with HIV and HIV-Negative Individuals: A Cross-Sectional Study in China
by Xiaojie Huang, Ying Yan, Bin Su, Dong Xiao, Maohe Yu, Xia Jin, Junyi Duan, Xiangjun Zhang, Shimin Zheng, Yuan Fang, Tong Zhang, Weiming Tang, Lunan Wang, Zixin Wang and Junjie Xu
Viruses 2022, 14(2), 277; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14020277 - 28 Jan 2022
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 2993
Abstract
This study compared the immunogenicity of inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines between people living with HIV (PLWH) and HIV-negative individuals. We recruited 120 PLWH and 53 HIV-negative individuals aged 18–59 years who had received an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in two Chinese cities between April and [...] Read more.
This study compared the immunogenicity of inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines between people living with HIV (PLWH) and HIV-negative individuals. We recruited 120 PLWH and 53 HIV-negative individuals aged 18–59 years who had received an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in two Chinese cities between April and June 2021. Blood samples were tested for immunogenicity of the inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. The prevalence and severity of adverse events associated with SARS-CoV-2 vaccines were similar between PLWH and HIV-negative individuals. The seropositivity of neutralizing activity against authentic SARS-CoV-2, of the total amount of antibody (total antibody) and of S-IgG were 71.3%, 81.9%, and 92.6%, respectively, among fully vaccinated PLWH. Among all participants, PLWH had lower neutralizing activity, total antibody, S-IgG, and T-cell-specific immune response levels, compared to HIV-negative individuals, after controlling for types of vaccine, time interval between first and second dose, time after receiving the second dose, and sociodemographic factors. PLWH with a longer interval since HIV diagnosis, who received their second dose 15–28 days prior to study commencement, and who had an interval of ≥21 days between first and second dose had higher neutralizing activity levels. The immunogenicity of the inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was lower among PLWH as compared to HIV-negative individuals. Vaccination guideline specific for PLWH should be developed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond)
14 pages, 6359 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Origin and Dissemination of HIV-1 Subtype C in Bulgaria
by Ivailo Alexiev, Carla Mavian, Taylor Paisie, Massimo Ciccozzi, Reneta Dimitrova, Anna Gancheva, Asya Kostadinova, Carole Seguin-Devaux and Marco Salemi
Viruses 2022, 14(2), 263; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14020263 - 27 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2603
Abstract
HIV-1 subtype C is the most abundant strain of HIV-1 infections worldwide and was found in the first known patients diagnosed with HIV/AIDS in Bulgaria in 1986. However, there is limited information on the molecular-epidemiological characteristics of this strain in the epidemic of [...] Read more.
HIV-1 subtype C is the most abundant strain of HIV-1 infections worldwide and was found in the first known patients diagnosed with HIV/AIDS in Bulgaria in 1986. However, there is limited information on the molecular-epidemiological characteristics of this strain in the epidemic of the country. In this study, we analyze the evolutionary history of the introduction and dissemination of HIV-1 subtype C in Bulgaria using global phylogenetic analysis, Bayesian coalescent-based approach, and molecular clock methods. All available samples with HIV-1 subtype C from individuals diagnosed with HIV/AIDS between 1986 and 2017 were analyzed. Men and women were equally represented, and 24.3% of patients reported being infected abroad. The global phylogenetic analysis indicated multiple introductions of HIV-1 subtype C from various countries of the world. The reconstruction of a Bayesian time-scaled phylogenies showed that several Bulgarian strains segregated together in clusters, while others were intermixed in larger clades containing strains isolated from both European and non-European countries. The time-scale of HIV-1 subtype C introductions in Bulgaria demonstrates the early introduction of these viruses in the country. Our in-depth phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses are compatible with a scenario of multiple early introductions in the country followed by limited local distribution in the subsequent years. HIV-1 subtype C was introduced in the early years of the epidemic, originating from different countries of the world. Due to the comprehensive measures for prevention and control in the early years of the epidemic in Bulgaria, HIV-1 subtype C was not widely disseminated among the general population of the country. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond)
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Review

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18 pages, 3920 KiB  
Review
Insights into HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase (RT) Inhibition and Drug Resistance from Thirty Years of Structural Studies
by Abhimanyu K. Singh and Kalyan Das
Viruses 2022, 14(5), 1027; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14051027 - 11 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3642
Abstract
The enzyme reverse transcriptase (RT) plays a central role in the life cycle of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and RT has been an important drug target. Elucidations of the RT structures trapping and detailing the enzyme at various functional and conformational states by [...] Read more.
The enzyme reverse transcriptase (RT) plays a central role in the life cycle of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and RT has been an important drug target. Elucidations of the RT structures trapping and detailing the enzyme at various functional and conformational states by X-ray crystallography have been instrumental for understanding RT activities, inhibition, and drug resistance. The structures have contributed to anti-HIV drug development. Currently, two classes of RT inhibitors are in clinical use. These are nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). However, the error-prone viral replication generates variants that frequently develop resistance to the available drugs, thus warranting a continued effort to seek more effective treatment options. RT also provides multiple additional potential druggable sites. Recently, the use of single-particle cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) enabled obtaining structures of NNRTI-inhibited HIV-1 RT/dsRNA initiation and RT/dsDNA elongation complexes that were unsuccessful by X-ray crystallography. The cryo-EM platform for the structural study of RT has been established to aid drug design. In this article, we review the roles of structural biology in understanding and targeting HIV RT in the past three decades and the recent structural insights of RT, using cryo-EM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond)
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16 pages, 916 KiB  
Review
Elevated Risk of Venous Thromboembolism in People Living with HIV
by Quan Zhang, Fei Peng, Meizhi Li, Qiong Yi, Wei Tang and Shangjie Wu
Viruses 2022, 14(3), 590; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14030590 - 12 Mar 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2636
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has been generally considered as a highly adaptive and rapidly evolving virus. It still constitutes a major public health problem all over the world despite an effective outcome in the prevention and reversal of the development and prognosis by [...] Read more.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has been generally considered as a highly adaptive and rapidly evolving virus. It still constitutes a major public health problem all over the world despite an effective outcome in the prevention and reversal of the development and prognosis by using antiretroviral therapy. The salient question lies in the more frequent emergence of a series of comorbidities along with the prolongation of the life, which deeply affects the survival in such group. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) has been recognized to be the third most common cardiovascular condition within people living with HIV (PWH). In terms of its mechanism of action, the occurrence of VTE is quite multifactorial and complex in HIV. Prior exploration concerning the etiology of VTE in PWH identifies general, disease-specific, and miscellaneous factors for explaining its occurrence and development. VTE has constituted an important role in PWH and may increase its all-cause mortality. Therefore, it is quite necessary to understand VTE from the following aspects of epidemiology, pathophysiology, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic interventions so as to balance the risks and benefits of anticoagulation and optimize corresponding treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond)
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12 pages, 2214 KiB  
Review
Tribute to John C. Martin at the Twentieth Anniversary of the Breakthrough of Tenofovir in the Treatment of HIV Infections
by Erik De Clercq
Viruses 2021, 13(12), 2410; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13122410 - 02 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2228
Abstract
At Bristol-Myers (BM) (1985–1990), John C. Martin started his HIV career with directing the clinical development of didanosine (ddI) and stavudine (d4T). During this period, he became aware of the acyclic nucleoside phosphonates (ANPs), such as (S)-HPMPA and PMEA, as potential [...] Read more.
At Bristol-Myers (BM) (1985–1990), John C. Martin started his HIV career with directing the clinical development of didanosine (ddI) and stavudine (d4T). During this period, he became aware of the acyclic nucleoside phosphonates (ANPs), such as (S)-HPMPA and PMEA, as potential antiviral drugs. Under his impulse, BM got involved in the evaluation of these ANPs, but the merger of BM with Squibb (to become BMS) incited John to leave BM and join Gilead Sciences, and the portfolio of the ANPs followed the transition. At Gilead, John succeeded in obtaining the approval from the US FDA for the use of cidofovir in the treatment of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in AIDS patients, which was reminiscent of John’s first experience with ganciclovir (at Syntex) as an anti-CMV agent. At Gilead, John would then engineer the development of tenofovir, first as TDF (tenofovir disoproxil fumarate) and then as TAF (tenofovir alafenamide) and various combinations thereof, for the treatment of HIV infections (i), TDF and TAF for the treatment of hepatitis B (HBV) infections (ii), and TDF and TAF in combination with emtricitabine for the prophylaxis of HIV infections (iii). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Fight between Human Beings and HIV: 40th Anniversary and Beyond)
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