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Picornaviruses
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Picornaviruses

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2021) | Viewed by 32980

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Caroline Tapparel

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department MIMOL, Centre Médical Universitaire (CMU), Medical Faculty, University of Geneva, Room A08.2926c, Geneva, Switzerland
Interests: enterovirus; rhinovirus; picornaviruses; respiratory and neurotropic viruses; antivirals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Picornaviridae family exhibits a considerable amount of genetic variability, illustrated by the presence of 63 genera containing 147 species and many viruses awaiting classification (ICTV report 2020). Picornaviruses have been detected in very diverse vertebrate hosts and include important human and animal pathogens as well as emerging pathogens. Despite a very high prevalence in the human population, the pathogenesis of picornaviruses is not fully understood as the same viruses can cause a diversity of diseases ranging from asymptomatic infection to severe neurological symptoms. The interplay with the host immune system and the ability to cause persistent infection and autoimmune diseases also deserve particular attention.

In this Special Issue of Viruses, we aim to discuss recent developments and breakthroughs in picornavirus research, focusing primarily, but not exclusively, on recently identified picornaviruses, picornavirus–cell and picornavirus–host interaction, viral pathogenesis, development of novel research models, and development of novel antivirals and vaccines. I cordially invite you to share your most recent research findings on and/or insights into these topics. Both original research articles are reviews are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Caroline Tapparel
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • novel picornaviruses
  • pathogenesis
  • host interaction
  • cell infection
  • research model
  • antivirals
  • vaccine

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

14 pages, 2370 KiB  
Article
Proteolytic Activities of Enterovirus 2A Do Not Depend on Its Interaction with SETD3
by Xiaoyao Yang, Chiara Aloise, Arno L. W. van Vliet, Marleen Zwaagstra, Heyrhyoung Lyoo, Anchun Cheng and Frank J. M. van Kuppeveld
Viruses 2022, 14(7), 1360; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14071360 - 22 Jun 2022
Viewed by 1623
Abstract
Enterovirus 2Apro is a protease that proteolytically processes the viral polyprotein and cleaves several host proteins to antagonize host responses during enteroviral infection. Recently, the host protein actin histidine methyltransferase SET domain containing 3 (SETD3) was identified to interact with 2Apro [...] Read more.
Enterovirus 2Apro is a protease that proteolytically processes the viral polyprotein and cleaves several host proteins to antagonize host responses during enteroviral infection. Recently, the host protein actin histidine methyltransferase SET domain containing 3 (SETD3) was identified to interact with 2Apro and to be essential for virus replication. The role of SETD3 and its interaction with 2Apro remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the potential involvement of SETD3 in several functions of 2Apro. For this, we introduced the 2Apro from coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) in a mutant of encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) containing an inactivated Leader protein (EMCV-Lzn) that is unable to shut down host mRNA translation, to trigger nucleocytoplasmic transport disorder (NCTD), and to suppress stress granule (SG) formation and type I interferon (IFN) induction. Both in wt HeLa cells and in HeLa SETD3 knockout (SETD3KO) cells, the virus containing active 2Apro (EMCV-2Apro) efficiently cleaved eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma (eIF4G) to shut off host mRNA translation, cleaved nucleoporins to trigger NCTD, and actively suppressed SG formation and IFN gene transcription, arguing against a role of SETD3 in these 2Apro-mediated functions. Surprisingly, we observed that the catalytic activity of enteroviral 2A is not crucial for triggering NCTD, as a virus containing an inactive 2Apro (EMCV-2Am) induced NCTD in both wt and SETD3KO cells, albeit delayed, challenging the idea that the NCTD critically depends on nucleoporin cleavage by this protease. Taken together, our results do not support a role of SETD3 in the proteolytic activities of enterovirus 2Apro. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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15 pages, 3820 KiB  
Article
No Exchange of Picornaviruses in Vietnam between Humans and Animals in a High-Risk Cohort with Close Contact despite High Prevalence and Diversity
by Lu Lu, Jordan Ashworth, Dung Nguyen, Kejin Li, Donald B. Smith, Mark Woolhouse and on behalf of the VIZIONS Consortium
Viruses 2021, 13(9), 1709; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13091709 - 27 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2082
Abstract
Hospital-based and community-based ‘high-risk cohort’ studies investigating humans at risk of zoonotic infection due to occupational or residential exposure to animals were conducted in Vietnam, with diverse viruses identified from faecal samples collected from humans, domestic and wild animals. In this study, we [...] Read more.
Hospital-based and community-based ‘high-risk cohort’ studies investigating humans at risk of zoonotic infection due to occupational or residential exposure to animals were conducted in Vietnam, with diverse viruses identified from faecal samples collected from humans, domestic and wild animals. In this study, we focus on the positive-sense RNA virus family Picornaviridae, investigating the prevalence, diversity, and potential for cross-species transmission. Through metagenomic sequencing, we found picornavirus contigs in 23% of samples, belonging to 15 picornavirus genera. Prevalence was highest in bats (67%) while diversity was highest in rats (nine genera). In addition, 22% of the contigs were derived from novel viruses: Twelve phylogenetically distinct clusters were observed in rats of which seven belong to novel species or types in the genera Hunnivirus, Parechovirus, Cardiovirus, Mosavirus and Mupivirus; four distinct clusters were found in bats, belonging to one novel parechovirus species and one related to an unclassified picornavirus. There was no evidence for zoonotic transmission in our data. Our study provides an improved knowledge of the diversity and prevalence of picornaviruses, including a variety of novel picornaviruses in rats and bats. We highlight the importance of monitoring the human–animal interface for possible spill-over events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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16 pages, 2615 KiB  
Article
Interaction of Poliovirus Capsid Proteins with the Cellular Autophagy Pathway
by Anna Zimina, Ekaterina G. Viktorova, Seyedehmahsa Moghimi, Jules Nchoutmboube and George A. Belov
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1587; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13081587 - 11 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3364
Abstract
The capsid precursor P1 constitutes the N-terminal part of the enterovirus polyprotein. It is processed into VP0, VP3, and VP1 by the viral proteases, and VP0 is cleaved autocatalytically into VP4 and VP2. We observed that poliovirus VP0 is recognized by an antibody [...] Read more.
The capsid precursor P1 constitutes the N-terminal part of the enterovirus polyprotein. It is processed into VP0, VP3, and VP1 by the viral proteases, and VP0 is cleaved autocatalytically into VP4 and VP2. We observed that poliovirus VP0 is recognized by an antibody against a cellular autophagy protein, LC3A. The LC3A-like epitope overlapped the VP4/VP2 cleavage site. Individually expressed VP0-EGFP and P1 strongly colocalized with a marker of selective autophagy, p62/SQSTM1. To assess the role of capsid proteins in autophagy development we infected different cells with poliovirus or encapsidated polio replicon coding for only the replication proteins. We analyzed the processing of LC3B and p62/SQSTM1, markers of the initiation and completion of the autophagy pathway and investigated the association of the viral antigens with these autophagy proteins in infected cells. We observed cell-type-specific development of autophagy upon infection and found that only the virion signal strongly colocalized with p62/SQSTM1 early in infection. Collectively, our data suggest that activation of autophagy is not required for replication, and that capsid proteins contain determinants targeting them to p62/SQSTM1-dependent sequestration. Such a strategy may control the level of capsid proteins so that viral RNAs are not removed from the replication/translation pool prematurely. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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14 pages, 1707 KiB  
Article
Antigenicity and Immunogenicity Analysis of the E. coli Expressed FMDV Structural Proteins; VP1, VP0, VP3 of the South African Territories Type 2 Virus
by Guoxiu Li, Ashenafi Kiros Wubshet, Yaozhong Ding, Qian Li, Junfei Dai, Yang Wang, Qian Hou, Jiao Chen, Bing Ma, Anna Szczotka-Bochniarz, Susan Szathmary, Yongguang Zhang and Jie Zhang
Viruses 2021, 13(6), 1005; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13061005 - 27 May 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2636
Abstract
An alternative vaccine design approach and diagnostic kits are highly required against the anticipated pandemicity caused by the South African Territories type 2 (SAT2) Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV). However, the distinct antigenicity and immunogenicity of VP1, VP0, and VP3 of FMDV [...] Read more.
An alternative vaccine design approach and diagnostic kits are highly required against the anticipated pandemicity caused by the South African Territories type 2 (SAT2) Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV). However, the distinct antigenicity and immunogenicity of VP1, VP0, and VP3 of FMDV serotype SAT2 are poorly understood. Similarly, the particular roles of the three structural proteins in novel vaccine design and development remain unexplained. We therefore constructed VP1, VP0, and VP3 encoding gene (SAT2:JX014256 strain) separately fused with His-SUMO (histidine-small ubiquitin-related modifier) inserted into pET-32a cassette to express the three recombinant proteins and separately evaluated their antigenicity and immunogenicity in mice. The fusion protein was successfully expressed and purified by the Ni-NTA resin chromatography. The level of serum antibody, spleen lymphocyte proliferation, and cytokines against the three distinct recombinant proteins were analyzed. Results showed that the anti-FMDV humoral response was triggered by these proteins, and the fusion proteins did enhance the splenocyte immune response in the separately immunized mice. We observed low variations among the three fusion proteins in terms of the antibody and cytokine production in mice. Hence, in this study, results demonstrated that the structural proteins of SAT2 FMDV could be used for the development of immunodiagnostic kits and subunit vaccine designs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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14 pages, 7509 KiB  
Communication
N-Linked Glycosylation on Anthrax Toxin Receptor 1 Is Essential for Seneca Valley Virus Infection
by Nadishka Jayawardena, Linde A. Miles, Laura N. Burga, Charles Rudin, Matthias Wolf, John T. Poirier and Mihnea Bostina
Viruses 2021, 13(5), 769; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13050769 - 28 Apr 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4224
Abstract
Seneca Valley virus (SVV) is a picornavirus with potency in selectively infecting and lysing cancerous cells. The cellular receptor for SVV mediating the selective tropism for tumors is anthrax toxin receptor 1 (ANTXR1), a type I transmembrane protein expressed in tumors. Similar to [...] Read more.
Seneca Valley virus (SVV) is a picornavirus with potency in selectively infecting and lysing cancerous cells. The cellular receptor for SVV mediating the selective tropism for tumors is anthrax toxin receptor 1 (ANTXR1), a type I transmembrane protein expressed in tumors. Similar to other mammalian receptors, ANTXR1 has been shown to harbor N-linked glycosylation sites in its extracellular vWA domain. However, the exact role of ANTXR1 glycosylation on SVV attachment and cellular entry was unknown. Here we show that N-linked glycosylation in the ANTXR1 vWA domain is necessary for SVV attachment and entry. In our study, tandem mass spectrometry analysis of recombinant ANTXR1-Fc revealed the presence of complex glycans at N166, N184 in the vWA domain, and N81 in the Fc domain. Symmetry-expanded cryo-EM reconstruction of SVV-ANTXR1-Fc further validated the presence of N166 and N184 in the vWA domain. Cell blocking, co-immunoprecipitation, and plaque formation assays confirmed that deglycosylation of ANTXR1 prevents SVV attachment and subsequent entry. Overall, our results identified N-glycosylation in ANTXR1 as a necessary post-translational modification for establishing stable interactions with SVV. We anticipate our findings will aid in selecting patients for future cancer therapeutics, where screening for both ANTXR1 and its glycosylation could lead to an improved outcome from SVV therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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19 pages, 4294 KiB  
Article
Multiple Types of Novel Enteric Bopiviruses (Picornaviridae) with the Possibility of Interspecies Transmission Identified from Cloven-Hoofed Domestic Livestock (Ovine, Caprine and Bovine) in Hungary
by Zoltán László, Péter Pankovics, Gábor Reuter, Attila Cságola, Ádám Bálint, Mihály Albert and Ákos Boros
Viruses 2021, 13(1), 66; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13010066 - 06 Jan 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2198
Abstract
Most picornaviruses of the family Picornaviridae are relatively well known, but there are certain “neglected” genera like Bopivirus, containing a single uncharacterised sequence (bopivirus A1, KM589358) with very limited background information. In this study, three novel picornaviruses provisionally called ovipi-, gopi- and [...] Read more.
Most picornaviruses of the family Picornaviridae are relatively well known, but there are certain “neglected” genera like Bopivirus, containing a single uncharacterised sequence (bopivirus A1, KM589358) with very limited background information. In this study, three novel picornaviruses provisionally called ovipi-, gopi- and bopivirus/Hun (MW298057-MW298059) from enteric samples of asymptomatic ovine, caprine and bovine respectively, were determined using RT-PCR and dye-terminator sequencing techniques. These monophyletic viruses share the same type II-like IRES, NPGP-type 2A, similar genome layout (4-3-4) and cre-localisations. Culture attempts of the study viruses, using six different cell lines, yielded no evidence of viral growth in vitro. Genomic and phylogenetic analyses show that bopivirus/Hun of bovine belongs to the species Bopivirus A, while the closely related ovine-origin ovipi- and caprine-origin gopivirus could belong to a novel species “Bopivirus B” in the genus Bopivirus. Epidemiological investigation of N = 269 faecal samples of livestock (ovine, caprine, bovine, swine and rabbit) from different farms in Hungary showed that bopiviruses were most prevalent among <12-month-old ovine, caprine and bovine, but undetectable in swine and rabbit. VP1 capsid-based phylogenetic analyses revealed the presence of multiple lineages/genotypes, including closely related ovine/caprine strains, suggesting the possibility of ovine–caprine interspecies transmission of certain bopiviruses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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Review

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24 pages, 4191 KiB  
Review
Rhinovirus Inhibitors: Including a New Target, the Viral RNA
by Antonio Real-Hohn and Dieter Blaas
Viruses 2021, 13(9), 1784; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13091784 - 07 Sep 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5377
Abstract
Rhinoviruses (RVs) are the main cause of recurrent infections with rather mild symptoms characteristic of the common cold. Nevertheless, RVs give rise to enormous numbers of absences from work and school and may become life-threatening in particular settings. Vaccination is jeopardised by the [...] Read more.
Rhinoviruses (RVs) are the main cause of recurrent infections with rather mild symptoms characteristic of the common cold. Nevertheless, RVs give rise to enormous numbers of absences from work and school and may become life-threatening in particular settings. Vaccination is jeopardised by the large number of serotypes eliciting only poorly cross-neutralising antibodies. Conversely, antivirals developed over the years failed FDA approval because of a low efficacy and/or side effects. RV species A, B, and C are now included in the fifteen species of the genus Enteroviruses based upon the high similarity of their genome sequences. As a result of their comparably low pathogenicity, RVs have become a handy model for other, more dangerous members of this genus, e.g., poliovirus and enterovirus 71. We provide a short overview of viral proteins that are considered potential drug targets and their corresponding drug candidates. We briefly mention more recently identified cellular enzymes whose inhibition impacts on RVs and comment novel approaches to interfere with infection via aggregation, virus trapping, or preventing viral access to the cell receptor. Finally, we devote a large part of this article to adding the viral RNA genome to the list of potential drug targets by dwelling on its structure, folding, and the still debated way of its exit from the capsid. Finally, we discuss the recent finding that G-quadruplex stabilising compounds impact on RNA egress possibly via obfuscating the unravelling of stable secondary structural elements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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13 pages, 3158 KiB  
Review
Nucleocytoplasmic Trafficking Perturbation Induced by Picornaviruses
by Belén Lizcano-Perret and Thomas Michiels
Viruses 2021, 13(7), 1210; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13071210 - 23 Jun 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2787
Abstract
Picornaviruses are positive-stranded RNA viruses. Even though replication and translation of their genome take place in the cytoplasm, these viruses evolved different strategies to disturb nucleocytoplasmic trafficking of host proteins and RNA. The major targets of picornavirus are the phenylalanine-glycine (FG)-nucleoporins, which form [...] Read more.
Picornaviruses are positive-stranded RNA viruses. Even though replication and translation of their genome take place in the cytoplasm, these viruses evolved different strategies to disturb nucleocytoplasmic trafficking of host proteins and RNA. The major targets of picornavirus are the phenylalanine-glycine (FG)-nucleoporins, which form a mesh in the central channel of the nuclear pore complex through which protein cargos and karyopherins are actively transported in both directions. Interestingly, while enteroviruses use the proteolytic activity of their 2A protein to degrade FG-nucleoporins, cardioviruses act by triggering phosphorylation of these proteins by cellular kinases. By targeting the nuclear pore complex, picornaviruses recruit nuclear proteins to the cytoplasm, where they increase viral genome translation and replication; they affect nuclear translocation of cytoplasmic proteins such as transcription factors that induce innate immune responses and retain host mRNA in the nucleus thereby preventing cell emergency responses and likely making the ribosomal machinery available for translation of viral RNAs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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Graphical abstract

15 pages, 4216 KiB  
Review
Development of Group B Coxsackievirus as an Oncolytic Virus: Opportunities and Challenges
by Huitao Liu and Honglin Luo
Viruses 2021, 13(6), 1082; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13061082 - 05 Jun 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3378
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses have emerged as a promising strategy for cancer therapy due to their dual ability to selectively infect and lyse tumor cells and to induce systemic anti-tumor immunity. Among various candidate viruses, coxsackievirus group B (CVBs) have attracted increasing attention in recent [...] Read more.
Oncolytic viruses have emerged as a promising strategy for cancer therapy due to their dual ability to selectively infect and lyse tumor cells and to induce systemic anti-tumor immunity. Among various candidate viruses, coxsackievirus group B (CVBs) have attracted increasing attention in recent years. CVBs are a group of small, non-enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses, belonging to species human Enterovirus B in the genus Enterovirus of the family Picornaviridae. Preclinical studies have demonstrated potent anti-tumor activities for CVBs, particularly type 3, against multiple cancer types, including lung, breast, and colorectal cancer. Various approaches have been proposed or applied to enhance the safety and specificity of CVBs towards tumor cells and to further increase their anti-tumor efficacy. This review summarizes current knowledge and strategies for developing CVBs as oncolytic viruses for cancer virotherapy. The challenges arising from these studies and future prospects are also discussed in this review. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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42 pages, 3221 KiB  
Review
Picornaviruses: A View from 3A
by Terry Jackson and Graham J. Belsham
Viruses 2021, 13(3), 456; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13030456 - 11 Mar 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3249
Abstract
Picornaviruses are comprised of a positive-sense RNA genome surrounded by a protein shell (or capsid). They are ubiquitous in vertebrates and cause a wide range of important human and animal diseases. The genome encodes a single large polyprotein that is processed to structural [...] Read more.
Picornaviruses are comprised of a positive-sense RNA genome surrounded by a protein shell (or capsid). They are ubiquitous in vertebrates and cause a wide range of important human and animal diseases. The genome encodes a single large polyprotein that is processed to structural (capsid) and non-structural proteins. The non-structural proteins have key functions within the viral replication complex. Some, such as 3Dpol (the RNA dependent RNA polymerase) have conserved functions and participate directly in replicating the viral genome, whereas others, such as 3A, have accessory roles. The 3A proteins are highly divergent across the Picornaviridae and have specific roles both within and outside of the replication complex, which differ between the different genera. These roles include subverting host proteins to generate replication organelles and inhibition of cellular functions (such as protein secretion) to influence virus replication efficiency and the host response to infection. In addition, 3A proteins are associated with the determination of host range. However, recent observations have challenged some of the roles assigned to 3A and suggest that other viral proteins may carry them out. In this review, we revisit the roles of 3A in the picornavirus life cycle. The 3AB precursor and mature 3A have distinct functions during viral replication and, therefore, we have also included discussion of some of the roles assigned to 3AB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picornaviruses)
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