Research

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18 pages, 3080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma (PPARγ) Suppresses Inflammation and Bacterial Clearance during Influenza-Bacterial Super-Infection

by Radha Gopal, Angelico Mendy, Michael A. Marinelli, Lacee J. Richwalls, Philip J. Seger, Shivani Patel, Kevin J. McHugh, Helen E. Rich, Jennifer A. Grousd, Erick Forno and John F. Alcorn

Viruses 2019, 11(6), 505; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v11060505 - 01 Jun 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4705

Abstract

Influenza virus is among the most common causes of respiratory illness worldwide and can be complicated by secondary bacterial pneumonia, a frequent cause of mortality. When influenza virus infects the lung, the innate immune response is activated, and interferons and inflammatory mediators are [...] Read more.

Influenza virus is among the most common causes of respiratory illness worldwide and can be complicated by secondary bacterial pneumonia, a frequent cause of mortality. When influenza virus infects the lung, the innate immune response is activated, and interferons and inflammatory mediators are released. This “cytokine storm” is thought to play a role in influenza-induced lung pathogenesis. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is a member of the nuclear hormone receptor super-family. PPARγ has numerous functions including enhancing lipid and glucose metabolism and cellular differentiation and suppressing inflammation. Synthetic PPARγ agonists (thiazolidinediones or glitazones) have been used clinically in the treatment of type II diabetes. Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), diabetic participants taking rosiglitazone had an increased risk of mortality from influenza/pneumonia compared to those not taking the drug. We examined the effect of rosiglitazone treatment during influenza and secondary bacterial (Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus) pneumonia in mice. We found decreased influenza viral burden, decreased numbers of neutrophils and macrophages in bronchoalveolar lavage, and decreased production of cytokines and chemokines in influenza infected, rosiglitazone-treated mice when compared to controls. However, rosiglitazone treatment compromised bacterial clearance during influenza-bacterial super-infection. Both human and mouse data suggest that rosiglitazone treatment worsens the outcome of influenza-associated pneumonia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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13 pages, 2968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PSMB1 Negatively Regulates the Innate Antiviral Immunity by Facilitating Degradation of IKK-ε

by Fangyi Wu, Zhenmin Niu, Bin Zhou, Pengcheng Li and Feng Qian

Viruses 2019, 11(2), 99; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v11020099 - 24 Jan 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3918

Abstract

Proteasome is a large protein complex, which degrades most intracellular proteins. It regulates numerous cellular processes, including the removal of misfolded or unfolded proteins, cell cycle control, and regulation of apoptosis. However, the function of proteasome subunits in viral immunity has not been [...] Read more.

Proteasome is a large protein complex, which degrades most intracellular proteins. It regulates numerous cellular processes, including the removal of misfolded or unfolded proteins, cell cycle control, and regulation of apoptosis. However, the function of proteasome subunits in viral immunity has not been well characterized. In this study, we identified PSMB1, a member of the proteasome β subunits (PSMB) family, as a negative regulator of innate immune responses during viral infection. Knockdown of PSMB1 enhanced the RNA virus-induced cytokine and chemokine production. Overexpression of PSMB1 abolished virus-induced activation of the interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE) and interferon beta (IFNβ) promoters. Mechanistically, PSMB1 inhibited the activation of RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) and Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) signaling pathways. PSMB1 was induced after viral infection and its interaction with IKK-ε promoted degradation of IKK-ε through the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Collectively, our study demonstrates PSMB1 is an important regulator of innate immune signaling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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11 pages, 2234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Role of Anti-Viral Sensing Pathway for the Production of Type I Interferon β in Dendritic Cells and Macrophages Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus A2 Strain Infection

by Dong Sun Oh, Tae Hoon Kim and Heung Kyu Lee

Viruses 2019, 11(1), 62; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v11010062 - 15 Jan 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3671

Abstract

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of respiratory infectious disease in infants and young children. Dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages (MACs) are known to play important roles in RSV recognition, and in the production of type I interferons (IFNs) and pro-inflammatory [...] Read more.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of respiratory infectious disease in infants and young children. Dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages (MACs) are known to play important roles in RSV recognition, and in the production of type I interferons (IFNs) and pro-inflammatory cytokine in RSV infection. Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7), myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), and mitochondrial antiviral-signaling protein (MAVS) are known to be important for the RSV sensing pathway in DCs and MACs. However, despite the critical roles of type I IFNs in the anti-RSV immune response, the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that are required for RSV sensing in DCs and MACs remain unclear. Here, we investigate the pathway activated by RSV A2 strain infection using an IFN-β/YFP reporter mouse model to visualize IFN-β-producing cells and in vitro RSV infection in bone marrow-derived DCs (BM-DCs) and macrophages (BM-DMs). We present our finding that MyD88, but not TLR7, are important for RSV recognition and type I IFN and pro-inflammatory production in DCs and MACs. MAVS-deficient BM-DCs and BM-DMs show impaired induction of IFN-β production upon RSV stimulation, and this effect is RSV replication-dependent. Our study provides information on cell type-specific PRR requirements in innate immune responses against RSV infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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766 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Human Metapneumovirus Attachment Protein Contributes to Neutrophil Recruitment into the Airways of Infected Mice

by Nagarjuna R. Cheemarla and Antonieta Guerrero-Plata

Viruses 2017, 9(10), 310; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v9100310 - 22 Oct 2017

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4101

Abstract

Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) is a leading respiratory pathogen that causes lower respiratory tract infections worldwide. Acute HMPV infection induces an exacerbated inflammatory neutrophilic response leading to bronchiolitis and pneumonia. However, the mechanism by which the virus regulates neutrophil infiltration into the airways still [...] Read more.

Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) is a leading respiratory pathogen that causes lower respiratory tract infections worldwide. Acute HMPV infection induces an exacerbated inflammatory neutrophilic response leading to bronchiolitis and pneumonia. However, the mechanism by which the virus regulates neutrophil infiltration into the airways still remains unexplored. In this work, we used an experimental mouse model of HMPV infection to demonstrate that the attachment (G) protein of HMPV contributes to the recruitment of neutrophils into the airways and modulate the production of neutrophil chemoattractants and Type I IFN responses, specifically IFN-α. These findings provide the first evidence that the HMPV G protein contributes to the in vivo neutrophilic response to HMPV infection and furthers our understanding on virus induced inflammatory responses in the airways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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Review

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18 pages, 1424 KiB

Open AccessReview

Arthritogenic Alphavirus-Induced Immunopathology and Targeting Host Inflammation as A Therapeutic Strategy for Alphaviral Disease

by Helen Mostafavi, Eranga Abeyratne, Ali Zaid and Adam Taylor

Viruses 2019, 11(3), 290; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v11030290 - 22 Mar 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5861

Abstract

Arthritogenic alphaviruses are a group of medically important arboviruses that cause inflammatory musculoskeletal disease in humans with debilitating symptoms, such as arthralgia, arthritis, and myalgia. The arthritogenic, or Old World, alphaviruses are capable of causing explosive outbreaks, with some viruses of major global [...] Read more.

Arthritogenic alphaviruses are a group of medically important arboviruses that cause inflammatory musculoskeletal disease in humans with debilitating symptoms, such as arthralgia, arthritis, and myalgia. The arthritogenic, or Old World, alphaviruses are capable of causing explosive outbreaks, with some viruses of major global concern. At present, there are no specific therapeutics or commercially available vaccines available to prevent alphaviral disease. Infected patients are typically treated with analgesics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to provide often inadequate symptomatic relief. Studies to determine the mechanisms of arthritogenic alphaviral disease have highlighted the role of the host immune system in disease pathogenesis. This review discusses the current knowledge of the innate immune response to acute alphavirus infection and alphavirus-induced immunopathology. Therapeutic strategies to treat arthritogenic alphavirus disease by targeting the host immune response are also examined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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19 pages, 1152 KiB

Open AccessReview

Immune Activation, Inflammation, and Non-AIDS Co-Morbidities in HIV-Infected Patients under Long-Term ART

by Sonia Zicari, Libera Sessa, Nicola Cotugno, Alessandra Ruggiero, Elena Morrocchi, Carlo Concato, Salvatore Rocca, Paola Zangari, Emma C. Manno and Paolo Palma

Viruses 2019, 11(3), 200; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v11030200 - 27 Feb 2019

Cited by 236 | Viewed by 15657

Abstract

Despite effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), people living with HIV (PLWH) still present persistent chronic immune activation and inflammation. This condition is the result of several factors including thymic dysfunction, persistent antigen stimulation due to low residual viremia, microbial translocation and dysbiosis, caused by [...] Read more.

Despite effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), people living with HIV (PLWH) still present persistent chronic immune activation and inflammation. This condition is the result of several factors including thymic dysfunction, persistent antigen stimulation due to low residual viremia, microbial translocation and dysbiosis, caused by the disruption of the gut mucosa, co-infections, and cumulative ART toxicity. All of these factors can create a vicious cycle that does not allow the full control of immune activation and inflammation, leading to an increased risk of developing non-AIDS co-morbidities such as metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular diseases. This review aims to provide an overview of the most recent data about HIV-associated inflammation and chronic immune exhaustion in PLWH under effective ART. Furthermore, we discuss new therapy approaches that are currently being tested to reduce the risk of developing inflammation, ART toxicity, and non-AIDS co-morbidities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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25 pages, 828 KiB

Open AccessReview

Myeloid Cells during Viral Infections and Inflammation

by Ashley A. Stegelmeier, Jacob P. van Vloten, Robert C. Mould, Elaine M. Klafuric, Jessica A. Minott, Sarah K. Wootton, Byram W. Bridle and Khalil Karimi

Viruses 2019, 11(2), 168; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v11020168 - 19 Feb 2019

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 8756

Abstract

Myeloid cells represent a diverse range of innate leukocytes that are crucial for mounting successful immune responses against viruses. These cells are responsible for detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns, thereby initiating a signaling cascade that results in the production of cytokines such as interferons [...] Read more.

Myeloid cells represent a diverse range of innate leukocytes that are crucial for mounting successful immune responses against viruses. These cells are responsible for detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns, thereby initiating a signaling cascade that results in the production of cytokines such as interferons to mitigate infections. The aim of this review is to outline recent advances in our knowledge of the roles that neutrophils and inflammatory monocytes play in initiating and coordinating host responses against viral infections. A focus is placed on myeloid cell development, trafficking and antiviral mechanisms. Although known for promoting inflammation, there is a growing body of literature which demonstrates that myeloid cells can also play critical regulatory or immunosuppressive roles, especially following the elimination of viruses. Additionally, the ability of myeloid cells to control other innate and adaptive leukocytes during viral infections situates these cells as key, yet under-appreciated mediators of pathogenic inflammation that can sometimes trigger cytokine storms. The information presented here should assist researchers in integrating myeloid cell biology into the design of novel and more effective virus-targeted therapies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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32 pages, 1573 KiB

Open AccessReview

Current Understanding of the Molecular Basis of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Pathogenesis and Vaccine Development

by Anuj Sharma and Barbara Knollmann-Ritschel

Viruses 2019, 11(2), 164; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v11020164 - 18 Feb 2019

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 9003

Abstract

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an alphavirus in the family Togaviridae. VEEV is highly infectious in aerosol form and a known bio-warfare agent that can cause severe encephalitis in humans. Periodic outbreaks of VEEV occur predominantly in Central and South America. Increased [...] Read more.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an alphavirus in the family Togaviridae. VEEV is highly infectious in aerosol form and a known bio-warfare agent that can cause severe encephalitis in humans. Periodic outbreaks of VEEV occur predominantly in Central and South America. Increased interest in VEEV has resulted in a more thorough understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease. Inflammation plays a paradoxical role of antiviral response as well as development of lethal encephalitis through an interplay between the host and viral factors that dictate virus replication. VEEV has efficient replication machinery that adapts to overcome deleterious mutations in the viral genome or improve interactions with host factors. In the last few decades there has been ongoing development of various VEEV vaccine candidates addressing the shortcomings of the current investigational new drugs or approved vaccines. We review the current understanding of the molecular basis of VEEV pathogenesis and discuss various types of vaccine candidates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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22 pages, 846 KiB

Open AccessReview

Interferon Independent Non-Canonical STAT Activation and Virus Induced Inflammation

by Yuchen Nan, Chunyan Wu and Yan-Jin Zhang

Viruses 2018, 10(4), 196; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v10040196 - 14 Apr 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6746

Abstract

Interferons (IFNs) are a group of secreted proteins that play critical roles in antiviral immunity, antitumor activity, activation of cytotoxic T cells, and modulation of host immune responses. IFNs are cytokines, and bind receptors on cell surfaces to trigger signal transduction. The major [...] Read more.

Interferons (IFNs) are a group of secreted proteins that play critical roles in antiviral immunity, antitumor activity, activation of cytotoxic T cells, and modulation of host immune responses. IFNs are cytokines, and bind receptors on cell surfaces to trigger signal transduction. The major signaling pathway activated by IFNs is the JAK/STAT (Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription) pathway, a complex pathway involved in both viral and host survival strategies. On the one hand, viruses have evolved strategies to escape from antiviral host defenses evoked by IFN-activated JAK/STAT signaling. On the other hand, viruses have also evolved to exploit the JAK/STAT pathway to evoke activation of certain STATs that somehow promote viral pathogenesis. In this review, recent progress in our understanding of the virus-induced IFN-independent STAT signaling and its potential roles in viral induced inflammation and pathogenesis are summarized in detail, and perspectives are provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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24 pages, 1256 KiB

Open AccessReview

Verdinexor Targeting of CRM1 is a Promising Therapeutic Approach against RSV and Influenza Viruses

by Jennifer A. Pickens and Ralph A. Tripp

Viruses 2018, 10(1), 48; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v10010048 - 21 Jan 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 8129

Abstract

Two primary causes of respiratory tract infections are respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and influenza viruses, both of which remain major public health concerns. There are a limited number of antiviral drugs available for the treatment of RSV and influenza, each having limited effectiveness [...] Read more.

Two primary causes of respiratory tract infections are respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and influenza viruses, both of which remain major public health concerns. There are a limited number of antiviral drugs available for the treatment of RSV and influenza, each having limited effectiveness and each driving selective pressure for the emergence of drug-resistant viruses. Novel broad-spectrum antivirals are needed to circumvent problems with current disease intervention strategies, while improving the cytokine-induced immunopathology associated with RSV and influenza infections. In this review, we examine the use of Verdinexor (KPT-335, a novel orally bioavailable drug that functions as a selective inhibitor of nuclear export, SINE), as an antiviral with multifaceted therapeutic potential. KPT-335 works to (1) block CRM1 (i.e., Chromosome Region Maintenance 1; exportin 1 or XPO1) mediated export of viral proteins critical for RSV and influenza pathogenesis; and (2) repress nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation, thus reducing cytokine production and eliminating virus-associated immunopathology. The repurposing of SINE compounds as antivirals shows promise not only against RSV and influenza virus but also against other viruses that exploit the nucleus as part of their viral life cycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Inflammation)

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