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Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems...
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Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Use and Scarcity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 August 2019) | Viewed by 47184

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Daniele Masseroni

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Departement of Agricultural and Enviromental Sciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milan, Italy
Interests: agricultural water management; automation in irrigation; water quality; watershed restoration; agro-hydrological modelling; nature-based solutions
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Gerard Arbat

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemical and Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of Girona, C/de Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 61. 17071 Girona, Spain
Interests: smart irrigation technologies; use of sensors, water-use efficiency; soil water modeling; drip irrigation; paddy fields and irrigation with reclaimed effluents
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Isabel Pedroso De Lima

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Luis Reis Santos, Pólo II Univ. Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: soil and water conservation; water use adaptation to climate change; hydroclimatological extremes; spatiotemporal scale issues in hydroclimatology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Smart irrigation systems provide attractive instruments and methodologies for saving water and improving soil conservation in view of mitigating the impacts of climate change as well as increasing agricultural production. They can avoid over-watering, excessive runoff and soil erosion by scheduling the amount of irrigation according to soil characteristics, crop types, weather conditions and field geometries.

New devices based on open-source and low-cost technologies and apps allow the management of irrigation at field and farm scales through a sustainable water supply system based on actual crop water requirements and accounting for the local variability of soil properties. Tailored management approaches of water resources for irrigation oriented towards agro-hydrological models and decision support systems at the farm and district irrigation scales can also maintain reliable and flexible water allocation during dry seasons, preserving water for environmental requirements and decreasing conflicts between water users. Likewise, the use of marginal water resources such as saline or treated wastewater, both from industrial and domestic origin, becomes a source of irrigation in semi-arid and arid regions, where the future of irrigated agriculture is threatened by existing or expected shortages of fresh water and raising concerns of potential hazards to the environment and/or humans. Therefore, smart irrigation systems that aim to adopt single or combined automation and information–communication technologies at the farm/district scale, as well as customized and integrated model approaches at larger scales, would appear to be a farsighted way to promote future resilient irrigation management.

Within this framework, this Special Issue offers an opportunity to gather studies and multidisciplinary approaches related to advanced technologies and innovative methodologies for irrigation management and soil conservation at different spatial scales, taking into account key issues such as:

  • New remote and proximal sensing techniques and methodologies for detecting soil hydraulic properties, crop water and nutrient status.
  • Innovative laboratory and outdoor experiments for detecting surface and subsurface runoff and soil transport.
  • New irrigation methods and techniques for improving the water use efficiency in different crops and environmental contexts, as well as preventing soil degradation such as compaction, loss of soil structure, nutrient degradation, erosion, sedimentation and salinity.
  • New agronomic and irrigation management practices to favor soil biodiversity and improve or restore natural ecosystems.
  • Systems and methodologies for improving the effectiveness of traditional irrigation methods.
  • Role of traditional irrigation methods in maintaining ecosystem and environmental equilibrium.
  • Automatic and remote-controlled systems for improving surface, sub-surface, drip and sprinkler irrigation.
  • Use of agro-hydrological models and decision support systems to promote better informed decisions on irrigation management and in safe surface water–groundwater interactions.
  • Pros and cons of marginal water use in irrigated agriculture.

Dr. Daniele Masseroni
Dr. Gerard Arbat
Prof. Isabel Pedroso de Lima
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • smart irrigation practices
  • soil health
  • open-source and low-cost monitoring devices
  • automatic and remote-controlled systems for irrigation
  • agro-hydrological models
  • evapotranspiration models and measurements
  • irrigation with marginal water.

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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7 pages, 185 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial—Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart-Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services
by Daniele Masseroni, Gerard Arbat and Isabel Pedroso de Lima
Water 2020, 12(1), 263; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w12010263 - 17 Jan 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4876
Abstract
Smart-irrigation systems are a hot topic in irrigation management. Satellite imaging, sensors and controls, communication technologies and irrigation decision models are readily available. The price of the required technology is being reduced year after year, and its implementation in agriculture gives real-time information [...] Read more.
Smart-irrigation systems are a hot topic in irrigation management. Satellite imaging, sensors and controls, communication technologies and irrigation decision models are readily available. The price of the required technology is being reduced year after year, and its implementation in agriculture gives real-time information that allows for more accurate management of water resources. Even so, the adaptation of existing technologies to particular situations that the irrigation management is facing in different agro-environmental contexts is needed. This Special Issue addresses the application of different smart-irrigation technologies in four different research areas: (1) remote sensing-based estimates of crop evapotranspiration, (2) Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for smart-irrigation, (3) precision irrigation models and controls, and (4) the price of natural resources. The nine papers presented in this special issue cover a wide range of practical applications, and this editorial summarizes each of them. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)

Research

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20 pages, 1861 KiB  
Article
Revisiting Telemetry in Pakistan’s Indus Basin Irrigation System
by Muhammad Tousif Bhatti, Arif A. Anwar and Muhammad Azeem Ali Shah
Water 2019, 11(11), 2315; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11112315 - 06 Nov 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 10241
Abstract
The Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) lacks a system for measuring canal inflows, storages, and outflows that is trusted by all parties, transparent, and accessible. An earlier attempt for telemetering flows in the IBIS did not deliver. There is now renewed interest in [...] Read more.
The Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) lacks a system for measuring canal inflows, storages, and outflows that is trusted by all parties, transparent, and accessible. An earlier attempt for telemetering flows in the IBIS did not deliver. There is now renewed interest in revisiting telemetry in Pakistan’s IBIS at both national and provincial scales. These investments are typically approached with an emphasis on hardware procurement contracts. This paper describes the experience from field installations of flow measurement instruments and communication technology to make the case that canal flows can be measured at high frequency and displayed remotely to the stakeholders with minimal loss of data and lag time between measurement and display. The authors advocate rolling out the telemetry system across IBIS as a data as a service (DaaS) contract rather than as a hardware procurement contract. This research addresses a key issue of how such a DaaS contract can assure data quality, which is often a concern with such contracts. The research findings inform future telemetry investment decisions in large-scale irrigation systems, particularly the IBIS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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17 pages, 9528 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Crop Water Balance Using Harmonized Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 Time Series Data
by Viviana Gavilán, Mario Lillo-Saavedra, Eduardo Holzapfel, Diego Rivera and Angel García-Pedrero
Water 2019, 11(11), 2236; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11112236 - 26 Oct 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3637
Abstract
Efficient water management in agriculture requires a precise estimate of evapotranspiration ( E T ). Although local measurements can be used to estimate surface energy balance components, these values cannot be extrapolated to large areas due to the heterogeneity and complexity of agriculture [...] Read more.
Efficient water management in agriculture requires a precise estimate of evapotranspiration ( E T ). Although local measurements can be used to estimate surface energy balance components, these values cannot be extrapolated to large areas due to the heterogeneity and complexity of agriculture environment. This extrapolation can be done using satellite images that provide information in visible and thermal infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum; however, most current satellite sensors do not provide this end, but they do include a set of spectral bands that allow the radiometric behavior of vegetation that is highly correlated with the E T . In this context, our working hypothesis states that it is possible to generate a strategy of integration and harmonization of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index ( N D V I ) obtained from Landsat-8 ( L 8 ) and Sentinel-2 ( S 2 ) sensors in order to obtain an N D V I time series used to estimate E T through fit equations specific to each crop type during an agricultural season (December 2017–March 2018). Based on the obtained results it was concluded that it is possible to estimate E T using an N D V I time series by integrating data from both sensors L 8 and S 2 , which allowed to carry out an updated seasonal water balance over study site, improving the irrigation water management both at plot and water distribution system scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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13 pages, 245 KiB  
Article
Investigating Homeowners’ Preferences for Smart Irrigation Technology Features
by Xumin Zhang and Hayk Khachatryan
Water 2019, 11(10), 1996; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11101996 - 25 Sep 2019
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2695
Abstract
Smart irrigation systems are relatively new technologies that optimize irrigation schedules in residential landscapes, thus leading to reduced irrigation water use and potential contamination. To promote the use of such technologies, the landscape services industry has introduced innovative features such as the integration [...] Read more.
Smart irrigation systems are relatively new technologies that optimize irrigation schedules in residential landscapes, thus leading to reduced irrigation water use and potential contamination. To promote the use of such technologies, the landscape services industry has introduced innovative features such as the integration of local weather data into irrigation controller systems or mobile phone control and alert notifications that help to facilitate usability and prevent over-irrigation. Very few studies have addressed homeowners’ preferences for outdoor irrigation technologies. This study investigates homeowners’ preferences for smart irrigation systems for residential landscapes. We utilized online survey data to examine how homeowners’ knowledge and perceptions influence their preferences for specific features such as automatic failure alert and notifications, mobile control, integration with weather-based and soil-moisture sensor-based irrigation, home automation, and touchscreen displays. Results estimated by the rank-ordered logit model revealed that knowledge and perceptions of smart irrigation controllers are significantly correlated with homeowners’ preferences for water efficiency features. The results offer practical implications for policymakers and the residential irrigation industry as they develop and promote smart irrigation technologies to conserve water resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
18 pages, 4680 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Effectiveness of Variable-Rate Drip Irrigation on Water Use Efficiency in a Vineyard in Northern Italy
by Bianca Ortuani, Arianna Facchi, Alice Mayer, Davide Bianchi, Andrea Bianchi and Lucio Brancadoro
Water 2019, 11(10), 1964; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11101964 - 20 Sep 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4814
Abstract
Although many studies in the literature illustrate the numerous devices and methodologies nowadays existing for assessing the spatial variability within agricultural fields, and indicate the potential for variable-rate irrigation (VRI) in vineyards, only very few works deal with the implementation of VRI systems [...] Read more.
Although many studies in the literature illustrate the numerous devices and methodologies nowadays existing for assessing the spatial variability within agricultural fields, and indicate the potential for variable-rate irrigation (VRI) in vineyards, only very few works deal with the implementation of VRI systems to manage such heterogeneity, and these studies are usually conducted in experimental fields for research aims. In this study, a VR drip irrigation system was designed for a 1-ha productive vineyard in Northern Italy and managed during the agricultural season 2018, to demonstrate feasibility and effectiveness of a water supply differentiated according to the spatial variability detected in field. Electrical resistivity maps obtained by means of an electro-magnetic induction sensor were used to detect four homogeneous zones with similar soil properties. In each zone, a soil profile was opened, and soil samples were taken and analyzed in laboratory. Two irrigation management zones (MZs) were identified by grouping homogeneous zones on the basis of their hydrological properties, and an irrigation prescription map was built consistently with the total available water (TAW) content in the root zone of the two MZs. The designed drip irrigation system consisted of three independent sectors: the first two supplied water to the two MZs, while the third sector (reference sector) was managed following the farmer’s habits. During the season, irrigation in the first two sectors was fine-tuned using information provided by soil moisture probes installed in each sector. Results showed a reduction of water use by 18% compared to the ‘reference’ sector without losses in yield and product quality, and a grape’s maturation more homogeneous in time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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27 pages, 4668 KiB  
Article
A Comprehensive Modelling Approach to Assess Water Use Efficiencies of Different Irrigation Management Options in Rice Irrigation Districts of Northern Italy
by Alice Mayer, Michele Rienzner, Sandra Cesari de Maria, Marco Romani, Alberto Lasagna and Arianna Facchi
Water 2019, 11(9), 1833; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11091833 - 04 Sep 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3354 | Correction
Abstract
European rice production is concentrated in limited areas of a small number of countries. Italy is the largest European producer with over half of the total production grown on an area of 220,000 hectares, predominantly located in northern Italy. The traditional irrigation management [...] Read more.
European rice production is concentrated in limited areas of a small number of countries. Italy is the largest European producer with over half of the total production grown on an area of 220,000 hectares, predominantly located in northern Italy. The traditional irrigation management (wet seeding and continuous flooding until few weeks before harvest—WFL) requires copious volumes of water. In order to propose effective ‘water-saving’ irrigation alternatives, there is the need to collect site-specific observational data and, at the same time, to develop agro-hydrological models to upscale field/farm experimental data to a spatial scale of interest to support water management decisions and policies. The semi-distributed modelling system developed in this work, composed of three sub-models (agricultural area, groundwater zone, and channel network), allows us to describe water fluxes dynamics in rice areas at the irrigation district scale. Once calibrated for a 1000 ha district located in northern Italy using meteorological, hydrological and land-use data of a recent four-year period (2013–2016), the model was used to provide indications on the effects of different irrigation management options on district irrigation requirements, groundwater levels and irrigation/drainage network efficiency. Four scenarios considering a complete conversion of rice irrigation management over the district were implemented: WFL; DFL—dry seeding and delayed flooding; WDA—alternate wetting and drying; WFL-W—WFL followed by post-harvest winter flooding from 15 November to 15 January. Average results for the period 2013–2016 showed that DFL and WDA would lead to a reduction in summer irrigation needs compared to WFL, but also to a postponement of the peak irrigation month to June, already characterized by a strong water demand from other crops. Finally, summer irrigation consumption for WFL-W would correspond to WFL, suggesting that the considered winter flooding period ended too early to influence summer crop water needs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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13 pages, 8857 KiB  
Article
Farmers’ Attitudes to the Pricing of Natural Resources for Sustainability: GAP-Şanlıurfa Sampling of Turkey
by Mustafa Hakki Aydogdu
Water 2019, 11(9), 1772; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11091772 - 26 Aug 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3545
Abstract
This research aims to evaluate farmers’ attitudes to the pricing of natural resources, mainly water and soil resources, in GAP-Şanlıurfa-Turkey. It will also define farmers’ willingness to accept pricing for the sustainability of resources and explore the potential factors that contribute to such [...] Read more.
This research aims to evaluate farmers’ attitudes to the pricing of natural resources, mainly water and soil resources, in GAP-Şanlıurfa-Turkey. It will also define farmers’ willingness to accept pricing for the sustainability of resources and explore the potential factors that contribute to such willingness. The data comes from a sample of 1105 farmers in Şanlıurfa who were chosen by a simple random sampling method and participants were interviewed face to face by questionnaires. The logistic regression is used for analysis. The results indicate that 40% of the farmers have a positive attitude to the pricing of resources for protection and sustainability. The most affecting factors are the location of the farmers, the number of agricultural manpower at the household, land amount, ownership status, income derived from agriculture, and livestock. The average willingness-to-pay amount was calculated in USD as $48.8/ha. Where public finance is insufficient to meet the demands, the willingness-to-pay amount may be used in co-investments. In this way, both the financing problem can be overcome and the ownership rate of the users can be increased. Therefore, the results could be helpful for decision- and policy-makers to develop strategies for the sustainability of resources for GAP-Turkey and areas with similar socioeconomic characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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13 pages, 2423 KiB  
Article
The Development of a Calculation Model for the Instantaneous Pressure Head of Oscillating Water Flow in a Pipeline
by Kai Zhang, Bo Song and Delan Zhu
Water 2019, 11(8), 1583; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11081583 - 31 Jul 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3052
Abstract
Sinusoidal oscillating water flow at low pressure can improve the anti-clogging ability of an emitter in drip irrigation or the water distribution of a nozzle in sprinkler irrigation and reduce the cost and energy consumption of the irrigation system. In this study, the [...] Read more.
Sinusoidal oscillating water flow at low pressure can improve the anti-clogging ability of an emitter in drip irrigation or the water distribution of a nozzle in sprinkler irrigation and reduce the cost and energy consumption of the irrigation system. In this study, the characteristics of instantaneous pressure head attenuation of oscillating water flow along a pipeline have been investigated. By using a complex function to solve the continuity equation and the momentum equation of a pipeline with water hammer motion and using the Darcy–Weisbach formula to estimate the head loss, a calculation model for the instantaneous pressure head of oscillating water flow along a pipeline was developed. The measured value of the amplitude of the pressure head and the average instantaneous pressure head in the experiments have been used to verify the corresponding pressure head calculated by the model. The results show that the amplitude of the pressure head and the average instantaneous pressure head decrease linearly along the pipeline. The calculated value of the amplitude of the pressure head and the average instantaneous pressure head are basically close to the corresponding measured pressure head. From the results of all the tests, the maximum relative error of the calculated and measured value of the amplitude of the pressure head along the pipeline was 9.44%. The maximum relative error of the calculated and measured value of the average instantaneous pressure head along the pipeline was 8.37%. Hence, the model can accurately predict the instantaneous pressure head of oscillating water flow along a pipe and provide a theoretical basis for the application of oscillating water flow in irrigation systems and the design of irrigation pipe networks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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14 pages, 2237 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Field Water Uniformity Distribution in a Microirrigation System Using a SCADA System
by Carles Solé-Torres, Miquel Duran-Ros, Gerard Arbat, Joan Pujol, Francisco Ramírez de Cartagena and Jaume Puig-Bargués
Water 2019, 11(7), 1346; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11071346 - 28 Jun 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3874
Abstract
Microirrigation is an efficient irrigation technique, although when wastewater is used the probability of operation problems such as emitter clogging increases. In most of microirrigation systems, control of irrigation performance is manual and sporadic, therefore clogging problems may not be detected at the [...] Read more.
Microirrigation is an efficient irrigation technique, although when wastewater is used the probability of operation problems such as emitter clogging increases. In most of microirrigation systems, control of irrigation performance is manual and sporadic, therefore clogging problems may not be detected at the right time. As it is easier to prevent emitter clogging if it is detected earlier, close monitoring of pressure and flow rates in microirrigation systems is an important way to achieve microirrigation system requirements and accomplish higher irrigation efficiencies. A supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system was used to monitor and control the performance of three microirrigation subunits; each one with four laterals, 90 m long with 226 emitters. The SCADA system monitored the pressure and flow across the irrigation laterals, and distribution uniformity coefficients were determined in real time, as they are indexes commonly used for evaluating drip irrigation systems. Results were compared with those experimentally obtained, showing a good correlation; although the emitter position had an important effect on the computed values. This work shows that a SCADA system can be easily used to continuously assess the pressure and water distribution uniformity without carrying out time-consuming manual field assessments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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16 pages, 5923 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Sinusoidal Oscillating Water Flow on Sprinkler and Impact Kinetic Energy Intensities of Laterally-Moving Sprinkler Irrigation Systems
by Kai Zhang, Bo Song and Delan Zhu
Water 2019, 11(7), 1325; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w11071325 - 27 Jun 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3374
Abstract
Laterally-moving sprinkler irrigation systems under low pressure experience problems including small spraying range, low uniformity, surface runoff, and low water utilization rate. To solve these problems, experiments were carried out on a laterally-moving sprinkler irrigation system using a Nelson D3000 sprinkler (Nelson Irrigation [...] Read more.
Laterally-moving sprinkler irrigation systems under low pressure experience problems including small spraying range, low uniformity, surface runoff, and low water utilization rate. To solve these problems, experiments were carried out on a laterally-moving sprinkler irrigation system using a Nelson D3000 sprinkler (Nelson Irrigation Co., Walla Walla, WA, USA) under low pressure, sinusoidal oscillating water flow. The sprinkler intensity and impact kinetic energy intensity distribution were investigated for sprinklers both static and in motion. The test data were used to calculate combined sprinkler intensity and impact kinetic energy intensity uniformity for different nozzle spacings, and were compared with constant water pressure test results. It was found that sinusoidal oscillating water flow can effectively increase spraying range, as well as reducing the peak value of the sprinkler intensity and impact kinetic energy intensity. Within an optimal range of amplitude and nozzle spacing, sinusoidal oscillating water flow significantly improves the combined sprinkler intensity, impact kinetic energy intensity uniformity, and the spraying quality of laterally-moving sprinkler irrigation systems under low pressure conditions. When the average water pressure is 100 kPa, the optimal range of amplitude of sinusoidal oscillating flow applied to the laterally-moving sprinkler irrigation system is 50–60 kPa. When the amplitude is 50 kPa, the optimal nozzle spacing is 3.5–4 m; when the amplitude is 60 kPa, the optimal nozzle spacing is 3.5–4.5 m. The related parameters can provide a reference for the application of sinusoidal oscillating water flow in laterally-moving sprinkler irrigation systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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1 pages, 149 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Mayer, A., et al. A Comprehensive Modelling Approach to Assess Water Use Efficiencies of Different Irrigation Management Options in Rice Irrigation Districts of Northern Italy. Water 2019, 11, 1833
by Alice Mayer, Michele Rienzner, Sandra Cesari de Maria, Marco Romani, Alberto Lasagna and Arianna Facchi
Water 2020, 12(4), 1047; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/w12041047 - 07 Apr 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1527
Abstract
In the published article [1] the authors noticed an error in the ‘Percolation or Capillary Rise’ values reported in Table 4, column 4, and wish to make the following correction to their paper [1]: Table 4 should be replaced with the following: Actual [...] Read more.
In the published article [1] the authors noticed an error in the ‘Percolation or Capillary Rise’ values reported in Table 4, column 4, and wish to make the following correction to their paper [1]: Table 4 should be replaced with the following: Actual Evapotranspiration (mm) Irrigation (mm) Percolation (−) or Capillary Rise (+) (mm) WUE (%) Maize 449 620 (438, 705) −589 (−243, −732) 50 (61, 44) Irrigated poplar 348 300 (300, 300) −247 (−215, −252) 57 (50, 58) Rainfed poplar 487 0 −18 (+232, −57) 159 (149, 159) WDA rice 537 1394 (964, 1620) −1002 (−491, −1206) 34 (43, 29) WFL rice 592 1852 (1508, 2210) −1266 (−860, −1693) 28 (32, 23) [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing and Planning Water Resources for Irrigation: Smart Irrigation Systems for Providing Sustainable Agriculture and Maintaining Ecosystem Services)
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