Building Energy and Environment

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Topic Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the presence of the serious global climate change problem, the building sector becomes a key area to achieve the goals of “carbon peaking” and “carbon neutrality”. During the life cycle of buildings, the construction, operation, retrofit and removal phases all generate large amounts of carbon emissions. The pandemic has brought another issue for building environment control and carbon emissions. The transformation towards green and low-carbon buildings is of great urgency, and has become a global development trend. In the building sector, there are still many challenges to promote the development route of "low-carbon, carbon reduction, net zero carbon", including low-carbon building theory and technology systems, building materials, construction technology, low-carbon operation and management, renewable energy utilization, energy-saving and environmental protection equipment, etc.

The main topics include (but are not limited to):

1. Low-carbon buildings and healthy building environment;

2. Advanced building environment control strategies and technologies;

3. Low-carbon building theory, methodology and design;

4. Advanced and emerging green building materials and infrastructure structures;

5. Low-carbon building construction assembly technology;

6. Methodology for monitoring, predicting, evaluating and control of carbon emissions throughout the life cycle of buildings;

7. Renewable energy utilization and energy saving equipment integrations;

8. Coupled design of urban form and energy systems.

Prof. Dr. Shi-Jie Cao
Dr. Wei Feng
Topic Editors

Keywords

Participating Journals

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Energies energies	3.2	5.5	2008	16.1 Days	CHF 2600
Buildings buildings	3.8	3.1	2011	14.6 Days	CHF 2600
Designs designs	-	3.2	2017	16.4 Days	CHF 1600
Architecture architecture	-	-	2021	26.4 Days	CHF 1000

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20 pages, 84776 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

A Case Study of Empirical Validation of EnergyPlus Infiltration Models Based on Different Wind Data

by Gabriela Bastos Porsani and Carlos Fernández Bandera

Buildings 2023, 13(2), 511; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings13020511 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1394

Abstract

Building retrofitting is an efficient means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Its first focus is on building façade, as transmission and air leakage are the main sources of energy loss in buildings. Nowadays, building modellers cannot easily implement envelope air leakage and assume [...] Read more.

Building retrofitting is an efficient means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Its first focus is on building façade, as transmission and air leakage are the main sources of energy loss in buildings. Nowadays, building modellers cannot easily implement envelope air leakage and assume constant values, which results in erroneous energy estimates. Additionally, in energy simulations, a weather file is usually inserted with measurements provided by a weather station. In this study, we revealed the use of wind data from the weather file (herein as global wind) to calculate the infiltration of a test case in Spain, using the three algebraic equations of EnergyPlus. Furthermore, four other wind data were applied: eastbound and westbound winds from the weather file and two from in situ measurements (on the southeast and on the northwest façades). The fifteen combinations of the three infiltration models and the five wind data were empirically evaluated, using the tracer gas results performed during three different periods. The combinations were validated according to the American Society for Testing Materials D5157 standard criteria, and the best and the only ones that complied with the standard were those using the wind data from the southeast in situ sensor and the west wind from the weather station. The global wind was not able to generate accurate infiltration models, which raises doubts about its use in the highly-time calibration of energy models. However, its disaggregation was a cost-effective strategy to estimate the infiltration of this case study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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19 pages, 3040 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Energy Conservation in a Livestock Building Combined with a Renewable Energy Heating System towards CO₂ Emission Reduction: The Case Study of a Sheep Barn in North Greece

by Antonios A. Lithourgidis, Vasileios K. Firfiris, Sotirios D. Kalamaras, Christos A. Tzenos, Christos N. Brozos and Thomas A. Kotsopoulos

Energies 2023, 16(3), 1087; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16031087 - 18 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1299

Abstract

Cold stress in sheep is usually overlooked, even though the animals’ welfare and productivity are affected by low temperatures. The aim of this research was to find out if and to what extent the temperature inside a sheep barn could be maintained within [...] Read more.

Cold stress in sheep is usually overlooked, even though the animals’ welfare and productivity are affected by low temperatures. The aim of this research was to find out if and to what extent the temperature inside a sheep barn could be maintained within the range of the thermoneutral zone during winter, primarily to increase feed conversion and to reduce GHG emissions. For this reason, an automation system was installed at a sheep barn in northern Greece, and heat losses from the building were calculated. The biogas potential of the sheep barn waste was examined in the laboratory via the BMP method. The results showed that the installation of an automation system together with a hypothetical biogas heating system could maintain the barn’s temperature in the range of a sheep’s thermoneutral zone during winter for the 94% of the scenarios examined if the total energy of the biogas was utilized, while heating energy that was instantly and continuously used succeeded in 48% of the investigated cases. The surplus of energy produced by biogas could potentially raise the water temperature that animals drink up to 2.9 °C. The absence of cold stress decreases the dry matter intake and the CH₄ produced by ruminal fermentation. Moreover, lower GHG emissions are achieved as waste is treated through anaerobic digestion, which would likely be released into the environment if left untreated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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19 pages, 8742 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Efficiency and Environmental Performance of a Nearly Zero-Energy University Building’s Energy System in Norway

by Fredrik Ege Abrahamsen, Sturla Grina Ruud and Alemayehu Gebremedhin

Buildings 2023, 13(1), 169; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings13010169 - 09 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2142

Abstract

Increasing awareness of climate issues in recent decades has led to new policies on buildings’ energy consumption and energy performance. The European Union (EU) directive 2010/31/EC, i.e., the energy performance of buildings directive (EPBD), is one of the measures initiated to achieve climate [...] Read more.

Increasing awareness of climate issues in recent decades has led to new policies on buildings’ energy consumption and energy performance. The European Union (EU) directive 2010/31/EC, i.e., the energy performance of buildings directive (EPBD), is one of the measures initiated to achieve climate and energy goals by reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in the building sector. The EPBD required all new buildings to be nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEBs) by 2021. Nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEBs) are buildings with a very-high-energy performance and nearly zero or low-energy requirements covered to a very significant extent by energy from renewable sources produced on-site or nearby. The utilisation of solar photovoltaic (PV) panels is a common approach for achieving the nZEB standard. The carbon footprint of PV panels is often not discussed as a parameter. This paper aimed to analyse the environmental performance of an existing nearly zero-energy university building in a Norwegian use case scenario. This analysis is performed by assessing annual electricity and heat consumption from both energetic and environmental perspectives. The energy required for the building during the studied period is then used to analyse the environmental and energy performance of the building. When it comes to the environmental assessment, the commercial software SimaPro was used. The proposed revision EPBD and nZEB definition from 2021 suggests that nZEBs should also consider operational greenhouse gas emissions and life-cycle global warming potential from 2027. The life cycle assessment (LCA) of the building’s energy sources looks at the global warming potential (GWP) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and how they compare to Norwegian grid electricity. The results of the analysis highlights potential challenges to justifying the use of alternative energy sources to fulfil the criteria of nZEBs. When installing solar PV, it is important to consider the energy mix of the country where the solar PVs are produced. To solely consider the energy performance of the building, the installation of solar PV panels in countries with a high share of renewable energy may result in a reduced impact in terms of emission reduction from a life cycle perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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23 pages, 9699 KiB  

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

CFD Investigation of Ventilation Strategies to Remove Contaminants from a Hospital Room

by Mustafa Alkhalaf, Adrian Ilinca and Mohamed Yasser Hayyani

Designs 2023, 7(1), 5; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/designs7010005 - 04 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3148

Abstract

The primary requirement in designing air conditioning systems in healthcare facilities is eliminating contaminants. It is considered one of the crucial health elements in building design, particularly in the presence of many airborne diseases such as COVID-19. The purpose of this numerical research [...] Read more.

The primary requirement in designing air conditioning systems in healthcare facilities is eliminating contaminants. It is considered one of the crucial health elements in building design, particularly in the presence of many airborne diseases such as COVID-19. The purpose of this numerical research is to simulate various ventilation designs for a hospital room model by taking into account results obtained by previous researchers. Four designs with three airflows, 9, 12, and 15 ACH (Air Change per Hour), are applied to explore the capacity of the ventilation system to remove contaminants. The objective is to determine the influence of airflow and the diffuser location distribution on the pollutants elimination represented by carbon dioxide. The Reynold Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations and the k-ε turbulence model were used as the underlying mathematical model for the airflow. In addition, boundary conditions were extracted from ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers Society) ventilation publications and relevant literature. Contrary to what was expected, this study’s results demonstrated that increased ventilation alone does not always improve air distribution or remove more contaminants. In addition, pollutant removal was significantly affected by the outlet’s location. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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18 pages, 3925 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Sugarcane Bagasse as Aggregate in Composites for Building Blocks

by Patrícia P. L. de Souza, Rute Eires and Raphaele Malheiro

Energies 2023, 16(1), 398; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16010398 - 29 Dec 2022

Viewed by 3469

Abstract

Each year, hundreds of millions of tons of processed sugarcane generate, by weight, 25 to 30% of bagasse as waste, whose destination is combustion for energy cogeneration. This research proposes an alternative and more sustainable use for this waste. The use of sugarcane [...] Read more.

Each year, hundreds of millions of tons of processed sugarcane generate, by weight, 25 to 30% of bagasse as waste, whose destination is combustion for energy cogeneration. This research proposes an alternative and more sustainable use for this waste. The use of sugarcane bagasse (SCB) as the single aggregate in composites for building blocks was studied. The raw bagasse was used without any treatment. As the binder, aerial lime and/or soil were used. Both provided enough mechanical strength for non-load-bearing walls. The composite of SCB with soil achieved the best performance in terms of mechanical resistance: 2.6 MPa in compressive strength and 2.1 MPa in bending strength, while the composite of SCB with lime achieved 1.76 MPa and 1.7 MPa, respectively. The higher number of fibers in the SCB/lime mixture provides better thermal insulation than clay brick or conventional concrete, such as “hempcrete”. The lime composites obtained greater water resistance and less loss of mechanical strength when saturated. However, the higher water absorption coefficient makes it necessary to apply a waterproof mortar on surfaces exposed to the weather. The replacement of supplied blocks by SCB blocks can offer a better and more economical solution that improves the quality of the built environment and is more ecofriendly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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21 pages, 5440 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study of LiCl/LiBr-Zeolite Composite Adsorbent for Thermochemical Heat Storage

by Depeng Chen, Xin Chen, Zhiwei Ma, Yaodong Wang, Anthony Paul Roskilly and Jian Zhou

Buildings 2022, 12(11), 2001; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12112001 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1629

Abstract

Adsorption-based thermochemical heat storage is a promising long-term energy storage technology that can be used for seasonal space heating, which has received significant amount of efforts on the research and development. In this paper, the heat storage capacity of composite adsorbents made by [...] Read more.

Adsorption-based thermochemical heat storage is a promising long-term energy storage technology that can be used for seasonal space heating, which has received significant amount of efforts on the research and development. In this paper, the heat storage capacity of composite adsorbents made by LiCl + LiBr salt and 3A zeolite was investigated. The basic characteristics of composite material groups were experimentally tested, and it was found that the adsorption composite with 15 wt% salt solution had excellent adsorption rate and adsorption capacity, which was considered as the optimal composite material. Furthermore, the heat storage density of the composite material could be as high as 585.3 J/g, which was 30.9% higher than that of pure zeolite. Using 3 kg of the composite material, the adsorption heat storage experiment was carried out using a lab-scale reactor. The effects of air velocity and relative humidity on the adsorption performance were investigated. It was found that a flow rate of 15 m³/h and a relative humidity of 70% led to the most released adsorption heat from the composite material, and 74.3% of energy discharge efficiency. Furthermore, an adsorption heat storage system and a residential model were built in the TRNSYS software to evaluate the building heating effect of such heat storage system. It is found that the ambient temperature will affect the heating effect of the adsorption heat storage system. The coefficient of performance (COP) of this model is as high as 6.67. Compared with the gas boiler heating system, the adsorption heat storage energy can replace part of the gas consumption to achieve energy savings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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20 pages, 4201 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Simulation and Experimental Study of CO₂ Transcritical Heat Pump System with Thermoelectric Subcooling

by Junlan Yang, Linxiu Wang, Yifei Han, Xin Zhang and Yufan Du

Designs 2022, 6(6), 115; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/designs6060115 - 16 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1381

Abstract

In order to improve the efficiency of the system and promote its application in other industries, the performance of a thermoelectric subcooled CO₂ transcritical heat pump system was studied. A simulation model of the system was established using steady-state lumped parameter technology, [...] Read more.

In order to improve the efficiency of the system and promote its application in other industries, the performance of a thermoelectric subcooled CO₂ transcritical heat pump system was studied. A simulation model of the system was established using steady-state lumped parameter technology, and the experimental data were compared with the simulation results. The effects of cooling and chilled water flow rate and temperature, subcooling degree, compressor discharge pressure on the coefficient of performance (COP), and heating coefficient of performance (COPh) were analyzed. The results showed that COP/COPh increased with the increase in cooling and chilled water flow rate and chilled water temperature and decreased with the increase in cooling water temperature. The experimental COPh and COP of the system with a thermoelectric subcooler increased by 4.19% and 4.62%, respectively, compared to the system without it. The simulated data was in good agreement with the experimental data, and the error was within 10%, thus verifying the correctness of the model. When the subcooling degree increased to 11 °C, the system simulation results showed that COP/COPh increased by about 40% and 13.3%, respectively. The optimal high pressure was about 8.0 MPa, which corresponded to the maximum COP and COPh of the system of 3.25 and 4.25, respectively. The research results can provide a theoretical basis for future system optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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19 pages, 4541 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

A Numerical Method for Solving Global Irradiance on the Facades of Building Stocks

by Haowei Xing, Yi Yang and Shuqin Chen

Buildings 2022, 12(11), 1914; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12111914 - 07 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1185

Abstract

Due to the influence of surrounding buildings on the radiation transfer process, the irradiance of individual buildings in building stocks is more uneven and different than that of individual buildings in open spaces. In view of the defect of the existing building surface [...] Read more.

Due to the influence of surrounding buildings on the radiation transfer process, the irradiance of individual buildings in building stocks is more uneven and different than that of individual buildings in open spaces. In view of the defect of the existing building surface irradiance calculation model in the sky radiation energy balance calculation, the complex surface reflection radiative transfer in diffuse irradiance, and complex processes, this paper combined the calculation of the complex surface narrow sky view, multiple reflections, and radiation characteristics of nonuniformity, and finally established the model for irradiance on the facade of a building stock (IFBS model) in a sheltered environment. The simulation results show that the IFBS model is superior to the traditional model in the calculation of sky diffuse irradiance and reflection irradiance of building stocks and is more suitable for the numerical calculation of the radiation transfer process of complex buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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22 pages, 6131 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Optimization for the Design of Geopolymer Concrete Walls with Phase Change Materials in the Mediterranean Climate

by Fabrizio Ascione, Rosa Francesca De Masi, Nicoletta Del Regno, Filippo De Rossi, Antonio Gigante and Silvia Ruggiero

Buildings 2022, 12(9), 1353; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12091353 - 01 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1278

Abstract

The adoption of phase change materials (PCMs) is a promising solution for the improvement of building energy performances and indoor comfort, and the integration of geopolymer concrete (GPC) allows recycling materials and reducing the demand for raw materials in concrete production. Both materials [...] Read more.

The adoption of phase change materials (PCMs) is a promising solution for the improvement of building energy performances and indoor comfort, and the integration of geopolymer concrete (GPC) allows recycling materials and reducing the demand for raw materials in concrete production. Both materials contribute to reducing the carbon dioxide emission in the building lifecycle. In this frame, this paper proposes a complete numerical approach for selecting the optimal wall package made of GPC and PCMs in a Mediterranean climate. The first step of the method consists of a parametric analysis for evaluating the incidence on energy performance and thermal comfort of the main designing variables: insulation thickness, air cavity type and its thickness, and PCMs type. Then, assuming the discomfort hours as a limiting constraint, a multi-objective optimization is applied to a subset of solutions for determining the Pareto front solutions. The advantage of the proposed methodology is the combined evaluations of multiple variables with a simplicity in execution; for this reason, it is useful for other researchers aimed at studying innovative solutions. According to obtained results, the better exposure for the proposed wall package is the north or northeast one. The minimization of the cooling energy demand requires the adoption of two PCMs, on internal and external sides, with melting temperature of 26 °C. The optimization of yearly performance requires the adoption of the maximum insulation level on both sides and a not-ventilated air gap between the modules. The cooling and heating energy need can be reduced, respectively, by around −29% and −57%, compared to a reference configuration with vacuum insulation panels and thermal transmittance of 0.4 W/m² K. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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31 pages, 3731 KiB  

Open AccessReview

A Review of Thermally Activated Building Systems (TABS) as an Alternative for Improving the Indoor Environment of Buildings

by María M. Villar-Ramos, Iván Hernández-Pérez, Karla M. Aguilar-Castro, Ivett Zavala-Guillén, Edgar V. Macias-Melo, Irving Hernández-López and Juan Serrano-Arellano

Energies 2022, 15(17), 6179; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15176179 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2579

Abstract

Among the alternatives for improving the thermal comfort conditions inside buildings are the thermally activated building systems (TABS). They are embedded in different building components to improve the indoor air temperature. In this work, a review and analysis of the state of the [...] Read more.

Among the alternatives for improving the thermal comfort conditions inside buildings are the thermally activated building systems (TABS). They are embedded in different building components to improve the indoor air temperature. In this work, a review and analysis of the state of the art of TABS was carried out to identify their potential to improve thermal comfort conditions and provide energy savings. Furthermore, this study presents the gaps identified in the literature so that researchers can develop future studies on TABS. The articles found were classified and analyzed in four sections, considering their implementation in roofs, walls, floors, and the whole envelope. In addition, aspects related to the configuration of the TABS and the fluid (speed, temperature, and mass flow rate) were analyzed. It was found that when TABS are implemented in roofs, walls, and floors, a reduction in the indoor temperature of a building of up to 14.4 °C can be obtained. Within the limitations of the TABS, the complexity and costs of their implementation compared to the use of air conditioning systems are reported. However, the TABS can provide energy savings of up to 50%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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20 pages, 5902 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Date Palm Surface Fibers for Green Thermal Insulation

by Mohsin Raza, Hyder Al Abdallah, Ayah Abdullah and Basim Abu-Jdayil

Buildings 2022, 12(6), 866; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12060866 - 20 Jun 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4185

Abstract

Some of the major challenges of the twenty-first century include the continued increase in energy consumption and environmental pollution. One approach to overcoming these challenges is to increase the use of waste materials and environmentally friendly manufacturing methods. The high energy consumption in [...] Read more.

Some of the major challenges of the twenty-first century include the continued increase in energy consumption and environmental pollution. One approach to overcoming these challenges is to increase the use of waste materials and environmentally friendly manufacturing methods. The high energy consumption in the building sector contributes significantly to global climatic changes. Here, by using date palm surface fibers, a high-performance green insulation material was developed via a simple technique that did not rely on any toxic ingredients. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was used as a binding agent. Four insulation samples were made, each with a different density within the range of 203 to 254 kg/m³. Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity values for these four green insulators were 0.038–0.051 $\mathrm{W}/\left(\mathrm{m}·\mathrm{K}\right)$ and 0.137–0.147 mm²/s, respectively. Thermal transmittance (U-value) of the four insulation composites was between 3.8–5.1 $\mathrm{W}/{\mathrm{m}}^2·\mathrm{K}$, which was in good comparison to other insulators of similar thickness. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed that insulating sample have excellent thermal stability, with an initial degradation temperature of 282 °C, at which just 6% of its original weight is lost. Activation energy ($E_a$) analysis revealed the fire-retardancy and weakened combustion characteristics for the prepared insulation composite. According to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements, the insulating sample has a melting point of 225 °C, which is extremely close to the melting point of the binder. The fiber-based insulating material’s composition was confirmed by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The ultimate tensile range of the insulation material is 6.9–10 MPa, being a reasonable range. Our study’s findings suggest that developing insulation materials from date palm waste is a promising technique for developing green and low-cost alternatives to petroleum-based high-cost and toxic insulating materials. These insulation composites can be installed in building envelopes during construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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21 pages, 6706 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Getting Fit in a Sustainable Way: Design and Optimization of a Low-Cost Regenerative Exercise Bicycle

by Huy Pham, Aseesh Paul Bandaru, Pranav Bellannagari, Sohail Zaidi and Vimal Viswanathan

Designs 2022, 6(3), 59; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/designs6030059 - 18 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4141

Abstract

With the increase in demand for more sustainable energy sources, recent researchers have been looking into harvesting energy spent by humans for various purposes. One of the available sources of such energy is exercise equipment. While a few products are available in the [...] Read more.

With the increase in demand for more sustainable energy sources, recent researchers have been looking into harvesting energy spent by humans for various purposes. One of the available sources of such energy is exercise equipment. While a few products are available in the market to harvest the power expended during an exercise session, these products are costly, and the cost may prohibit a day-to-day user from purchasing those. Motivated by this challenge, this paper describes a long-running research project that uses a static exercise bicycle to sustainably harvest human energy. A regenerative spin bike that uses the friction between a flywheel and a BaneBots wheel was designed and deployed. For the motor mount, two methods are investigated: linear preloading and rotary preloading. A commercially available indoor static bicycle is modified to incorporate the flywheel and the motor attachment. The generated electricity is converted to DC using a three-phase rectifier. A car charger is used for charging any devices attached to the setup. The resulting configuration is very effective in operating small electronic devices. This setup, which uses only off-the-shelf components, can be considered a replacement for its expensive custom-made counterparts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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28 pages, 17360 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Open-Source Design and Economics of Manual Variable-Tilt Angle DIY Wood-Based Solar Photovoltaic Racking System

by Nicholas Vandewetering, Koami Soulemane Hayibo and Joshua M. Pearce

Designs 2022, 6(3), 54; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/designs6030054 - 14 Jun 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4690

Abstract

Fixed-tilt mechanical racking, consisting of proprietary aluminum extrusions, can dominate the capital costs of small-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. Recent design research has shown that wood-racking can decrease the capital costs of small systems by more than 75% in North America. To determine [...] Read more.

Fixed-tilt mechanical racking, consisting of proprietary aluminum extrusions, can dominate the capital costs of small-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. Recent design research has shown that wood-racking can decrease the capital costs of small systems by more than 75% in North America. To determine if wood racking provides enough savings to enable labor to be exchanged profitably for higher solar electric output, this article develops a novel variable tilt angle open-source wood-based do-it-yourself (DIY) PV rack that can be built and adjusted at exceptionally low costs. A detailed levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) production analysis is performed after the optimal monthly tilt angles are determined for a range of latitudes. The results show the racking systems with an optimal variable seasonal tilt angle have the best lifetime energy production, with 5.2% more energy generated compared to the fixed-tilt system (or 4.8% more energy, if limited to a maximum tilt angle of 60°). Both fixed and variable wooden racking systems show similar LCOE, which is only 29% of the LCOE of commercial metal racking. The results of this study indicate that the novel variable tilt rack, whether used as a small-scale DIY project or scaled up to fulfill larger energy demands, provides both the lowest cost option even when modest labor costs are included and also may provide specific advantages for applications such as agrivoltaics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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21 pages, 24930 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Variation in Heating Energy Based on Energy Consumption from the District Heating System, Simulations and Pattern Analysis

by Soo-Jeong Kim and Doo-Yong Park

Energies 2022, 15(11), 3909; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15113909 - 25 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1253

Abstract

This study aims to analyze the actual heating energy consumption according to the location and size of apartment houses. The study shows the variation in heating energy consumption in accordance with the living pattern of residents in such apartments. By calculating the average [...] Read more.

This study aims to analyze the actual heating energy consumption according to the location and size of apartment houses. The study shows the variation in heating energy consumption in accordance with the living pattern of residents in such apartments. By calculating the average annual heating energy consumption and distribution of the measured heating energy of two years, it was found that the outdoor temperature was inversely proportional to the average heating energy consumption. Moreover, the lowest/highest floors and corner houses were the most vulnerable since they had a lot of area exposed to the outside air and, thus, consume a huge amount of heating energy. According to this study, the heating load had relevance to the factors such as wall loss, window loss, ventilation loss, and solar radiation gain that were analyzed in accordance with the growth in house size. Based on the survey outcome on the living pattern and number of residents, a simulation was conducted to analyze the variation in heating energy consumption. Households consumed the average heating energy for 15.8 h/day and occupied for 16.4 h/day. Households consumed more than the average heating energy for 22.2 h/day and occupied for 21.2 h/day, meaning 6.4 extra hours than those consuming the average heating energy. Households consumed less than the average heating energy for 5.2 h/day and occupied for 10.9 h/day, meaning 10.6 less hours/day than those consuming the average heating energy and 17 less hours/day than those consuming more than the average heating energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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15 pages, 46092 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Window Frames on Annual Energy Consumption of Residential Buildings and Its Contribution to CO₂ Emission Reductions at the City Scale

by Younhee Choi, Akihito Ozaki and Haksung Lee

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3692; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15103692 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3749

Abstract

Windows are among building components that have the strongest effect on thermal load. They play a significant role in heat loss in buildings because they usually have a largely higher thermal conductance than other components of the building envelope. Although many studies have [...] Read more.

Windows are among building components that have the strongest effect on thermal load. They play a significant role in heat loss in buildings because they usually have a largely higher thermal conductance than other components of the building envelope. Although many studies have highlighted the relevance of heat transfer through frames and aimed to improve their thermal performance, poorly insulated aluminum frames (thermal conductivity of aluminum is 160 W/m·K, while that of polyvinyl chloride [PVC] is 0.17 W/m·K) are still in use in Japan. Therefore, the U-values of different window frames were calculated, and annual thermal loads were calculated according to the window configurations, including the frame, glazing, and cavity. We focused on standard residential buildings in Japan with a total floor area of 120.6 m² (two-story building), and the number of newly built houses and the application rate of window configurations in 2019 were surveyed to estimate the CO₂ emissions by regions. CO₂ emissions were reduced by approximately 3.98–6.58% with the application of PVC frames. Furthermore, CO₂ emissions were converted into the amount of CO₂ gas absorbed by cedar trees, which cover nearly 18% of the total land area of Japan. In conclusion, analogous to the amount of CO₂ gas absorbed by cedar trees, the absorption effect was equivalent to 327,743–564,416 cedar trees. Changing the window frame material can facilitate a significant energy-saving effect as a considerable amount of energy is saved, especially at a city scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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18 pages, 5140 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Heating and Cooling Primary Energy Demand and CO₂ Emissions: Lithuanian A+ Buildings and/in Different European Locations

by Kęstutis Valančius, Monika Grinevičiūtė and Giedrė Streckienė

Buildings 2022, 12(5), 570; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12050570 - 28 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2887

Abstract

National legal and political regulation in the field of energy efficiency is closely connected to minimizing energy consumption in buildings. Within the framework of implementing Directive 2018/844/EU on the energy performance of buildings in Europe, the practice of its application differs from country [...] Read more.

National legal and political regulation in the field of energy efficiency is closely connected to minimizing energy consumption in buildings. Within the framework of implementing Directive 2018/844/EU on the energy performance of buildings in Europe, the practice of its application differs from country to country. This study aims to reveal the differences in the energy indicators of an energy-efficient building in European states. To that end, an analysis was made to compare the results of a single-family home model in 11 city locations with different climatic conditions (from the Mediterranean to Nordic) and appropriate national regulations in place for the past three years. The simulation was done using IDA Indoor Climate and Energy software, EQUA Simulation AB, Stockholm, Sweden. The demand for primary energy is based on primary energy factors. A comparison of overall heat transfer coefficients for walls and windows in an energy-efficient building in different locations was made to reveal the differences in applicable national regulations. The results showcase the primary energy demand depending on the different climatic conditions for building heating and cooling purposes, as appropriate, and on CO₂ emissions. The study has shown the energy demand for cooling to increase significantly—by 65% in the case of Vilnius, whereas only a slight decrease in the demand for heating. Furthermore, a Lithuanian energy class A+ building is singled out as an individual case, its energy indicators determined for a different location under analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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23 pages, 3098 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying of Vision through Polymer Dispersed Liquid Crystal Double-Glazed Window

by Mohammed Lami, Faris Al-naemi, Hameed Alrashidi and Walid Issa

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3196; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15093196 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1727

Abstract

The visual linking of a building’s occupants with the outside views is a basic property of windows. However, vision through windows is not yet a metricized factor. The previous research employs a human survey methods to assess the vision through conventional windows. The [...] Read more.

The visual linking of a building’s occupants with the outside views is a basic property of windows. However, vision through windows is not yet a metricized factor. The previous research employs a human survey methods to assess the vision through conventional windows. The recently fabricated smart films add a changeable visual transparency feature to the windows. The varied operating transparency challenges the evaluation of vision. Therefore, surveying human preferences is no longer a feasible approach for smart windows. This paper proposes an image-processing-based approach to quantify the vision quality through smart windows. The proposed method was experimentally applied to a polymer dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) double-glazed window. The system instantaneously determines the available contrast band of the scenes seen through the window. The system adjusts the excitation of the PDLC film to maintain a desired vision level within the determined vision band. A preferred vision ratio (PVR) is proposed to meet the requirements of occupant comfort. The impact of the PVR on vision quality, solar heat gain, and daylight performance was investigated experimentally. The results show that the system can determine the available vision comfort band during daytime considering different occupant requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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11 pages, 1384 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Influence of a Better Prediction of Thermal Satisfaction for the Implementation of an HVAC-Based Demand Response Strategy

by Jongyeon Lim and Wonjun Choi

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3094; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15093094 - 23 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1335

Abstract

Building system operation faces the challenge of reducing energy use and implementing a demand response, which can be defined as a temporary modification in energy loads affecting dynamic energy price and reliability information. The heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system in buildings provides [...] Read more.

Building system operation faces the challenge of reducing energy use and implementing a demand response, which can be defined as a temporary modification in energy loads affecting dynamic energy price and reliability information. The heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system in buildings provides an opportunity for implementing demand response strategies due to the thermal inertia in building zones. However, an HVAC-based demand response is not a prevalent strategy in actual facility management due to the lack of understanding among building operators of their facilities and occupants. Herein, we focus on developing a better understanding of the occupant side by obtaining a reliable prediction of occupants’ thermal satisfaction. We evaluate the prediction performance of a probabilistic model provided in our previous paper using a case study with a subset of the ASHRAE Global Thermal Comfort Database II. The influence of a better prediction of thermal satisfaction on the implementation of the HVAC-based demand response strategy is further discussed. The conventional method overestimates productivity deterioration due to changes in the thermal environment, making it challenging to implement an HVAC-based demand response strategy aggressively. A robust prediction model using a probabilistic approach can solve this problem, allowing building operators to adopt an aggressive stance for implementing a demand response. The results of this study offer fresh insight into the impact of a probabilistic model in the prediction of thermal satisfaction for establishing an HVAC-based demand response strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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32 pages, 14632 KiB  

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impacts of Location on Designs and Economics of DIY Low-Cost Fixed-Tilt Open Source Wood Solar Photovoltaic Racking

by Nicholas Vandewetering, Koami Soulemane Hayibo and Joshua M. Pearce

Designs 2022, 6(3), 41; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/designs6030041 - 21 Apr 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4688

Abstract

Although small solar photovoltaic (PV) systems avoid most soft costs, they still have a relatively high $/W value due to racking costs. In order to fulfill the promise of small-scale plug-and-play solar, a do-it-yourself PV rack design is provided and analyzed here for [...] Read more.

Although small solar photovoltaic (PV) systems avoid most soft costs, they still have a relatively high $/W value due to racking costs. In order to fulfill the promise of small-scale plug-and-play solar, a do-it-yourself PV rack design is provided and analyzed here for six criteria: (1) made from locally-accessible renewable materials, (2) 25-year lifetime to match PV warranties, (3) able to be fabricated by average consumers, (4) able to meet Canadian structural building codes, (5) low cost and (6) that it is shared using an open-source license. The open-source wood-based fixed-tilt ground-mounted bifacial photovoltaic rack design evaluated here was found to be appropriate throughout North America. Economic analysis of the bill of materials showed the racking system ranges from 49% to 77% less expensive compared to commercial proprietary racking in Canada. The racking design, however, is highly dependent on the cost of lumber that varies widely throughout the world. Even for an absolute lower-cost design in Togo due to a lower fixed tilt angle and lower loads from lack of snow, it was not found to be economic because of the relatively high cost of wood. The recent volatile lumber market warrants local evaluation from those considering the use of the open-source design. This design, however, provides for a PV rack that can be manufactured with distributed means throughout most of the world enabling more equitable access to solar energy to support a circular bioeconomy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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25 pages, 3744 KiB  

Open AccessReview

An Overview of Extrusion as a Pretreatment Method of Lignocellulosic Biomass

by Delon Konan, Ekoun Koffi, Adama Ndao, Eric Charles Peterson, Denis Rodrigue and Kokou Adjallé

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3002; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15093002 - 20 Apr 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4018

Abstract

Lignocellulosic biomass is both low cost and abundant, and unlike energy crops, can escape associated ethical dilemmas such as arable land use and food security issues. However, their usage as raw material in a biorefinery implies an inherent upstream pretreatment step to access [...] Read more.

Lignocellulosic biomass is both low cost and abundant, and unlike energy crops, can escape associated ethical dilemmas such as arable land use and food security issues. However, their usage as raw material in a biorefinery implies an inherent upstream pretreatment step to access compounds of interest derived from lignocellulosic biomass. Importantly, the efficiency of this step is determinant for the downstream processes, and while many pretreatment methods have been explored, extrusion is both a very flexible and promising technology. Extrusion is well-known in both the polymer and pharmaceutical industries and has been used since the 18th century. However, as a pretreatment method for lignocellulosic biomass, extrusion is relatively new. The first use for this purpose dates back to the 1990s. Extrusion enjoys a high degree of flexibility due to the many available parameters, but an understanding of extrusion requires a knowledge of these parameters and the different relationships between them. In this paper, we present a concise overview of lignocellulosic biomass extrusion by reviewing key extrusion parameters and their associated extruder design components and operating conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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20 pages, 19942 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Handling Load Uncertainty during On-Peak Time via Dual ESS and LSTM with Load Data Augmentation

by Jin Sol Hwang, Jung-Su Kim and Hwachang Song

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3001; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15093001 - 20 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1334

Abstract

This paper proposes a scheduling method of dual ESSs (Energy Storage Systems) for the purpose of reducing the peak load when there are sudden loads or generation changes during the on-peak time. The first ESS is scheduled once a day based on a [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a scheduling method of dual ESSs (Energy Storage Systems) for the purpose of reducing the peak load when there are sudden loads or generation changes during the on-peak time. The first ESS is scheduled once a day based on a day-ahead load prediction, and the second ESS is scheduled every 15 min during on-peak time based on a short-term load prediction by LSTM (Long Short-Term Memory). Special attention is paid to training the LSTM for the short-term load prediction by using the augmented past load data which is generated by adding possible uncertainties to the past load and temperature data. Based on the load forecast, optimization problems for the scheduling are formulated. The proposed scheduling method is validated using load and temperature data from a real building. In other words, when the proposed method is applied to the real building energy data in the case study, it not only shaves the peak load during on-peak time interval effectively but also results in lower electricity price although there are sudden load or temperature changes during the time interval. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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21 pages, 4461 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

The Impacts of Greenery Systems on Indoor Thermal Environments in Transition Seasons: An Experimental Investigation

by Xiaoli Hao, Liping Liu, Hang Tan, Yaolin Lin, Jinhua Hu and Wei Yin

Buildings 2022, 12(5), 506; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12050506 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2048

Abstract

The impacts of greenery systems (GSs) on microclimate conditions and building energy performance have been frequently investigated using experiments and simulations during the past decades, especially in summer and winter. However, few studies have focused on the performance of GSs in transition seasons. [...] Read more.

The impacts of greenery systems (GSs) on microclimate conditions and building energy performance have been frequently investigated using experiments and simulations during the past decades, especially in summer and winter. However, few studies have focused on the performance of GSs in transition seasons. The ambient weather conditions vary with great fluctuations during transition seasons, which may result in severe oscillations in indoor environments. To investigate the impacts of GSs on indoor environments, an experiment was conducted using a contrastive test platform, which consisted of two experimental rooms, one equipped with a GS and the other without, from 1 April 2019 to 31 May 2019 in Hunan, China. Both rooms were free-running. The experimental results showed that the GS had the ability to reduce the oscillations in the indoor environment. The oscillations in indoor dry-bulb temperature (DBT) and relative humidity (RH) were reduced by 39.3% and 28.8%, respectively. The maximum daily DBT and RH ranges were, respectively, cut down by 3.5 °C and 12.4%. The maximum reductions in external and internal surface temperatures were 29.5 °C and 9.4 °C, respectively, for the GS, while the average reductions were 1.6~4.1 °C and 0.2~1.3 °C, respectively, depending on the orientation of the surfaces. The operative temperature (OT) during the daytime on sunny days was also lowered by the GS. The differences in OT between the two rooms ranged from −1.8 °C to 8.2 °C, with an average of 1.0 °C. The GS can improve the indoor thermal comfort during transition seasons. The thermal dissatisfaction was decreased by 7.9%. This lengthened the thermal comfort time by 15% across the whole day and by 28% during the daytime. This indicates reductions in air-conditioning system operating times, leading to energy savings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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14 pages, 1329 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Research on Ecological Compensation Mechanism for Energy Economy Sustainable Based on Evolutionary Game Model

by Yingbo Qin and Wenping Wang

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2895; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15082895 - 14 Apr 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1719

Abstract

Energy and the environment are important foundations for sustainable economic development. In order to realize the sustainable development of energy economy, clarify the respective responsibilities of the government and enterprises, and explore the internal mechanism of ecological compensation, this paper constructs an evolutionary [...] Read more.

Energy and the environment are important foundations for sustainable economic development. In order to realize the sustainable development of energy economy, clarify the respective responsibilities of the government and enterprises, and explore the internal mechanism of ecological compensation, this paper constructs an evolutionary game model by means of social benefits, ecological compensation, supervision costs, government subsidies, enterprise punishment, enterprise additional income, enterprise emission reduction costs and other means, through the government’s supervision and non-supervision behavior, as well as the cooperation and non-cooperation behavior of enterprises, and analyzes the model parameters and game results. The research shows that: (1) due to the delay effect of technical progress of pollutant discharge, in the long run, the cost of enterprise emission reduction must be less than its benefits. (2) Social benefits brought by government regulation must exceed half of ecological compensation. (3) Government subsidy should not be higher than ecological compensation. Then, taking Inner Mongolia coal mine as an example, the field investigation is carried out from the three aspects of atmosphere, water, and soil, and the ecological environment loss of the mining area is preliminarily calculated based on the national technical specification for ecological environment assessment. Based on the above results, it shows that: (1) From the perspective of the government, social benefit must exceed USD 10.69 million annually; (2) from the perspective of enterprises, government subsidy should be lower than USD 21.38 million annually. In short, ecological compensation mechanism for coal resource development should include two parts: resource consumption reduction and environmental restoration; take the ecological compensation threshold as the standard, strictly eliminating declining enterprises, stimulating technological innovation, weakening the government subsidy, relying on non-governmental organizations to enlarge the social benefits brought by government supervision. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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46 pages, 2898 KiB  

Open AccessReview

Review of Residential Air Conditioning Systems Operating under High Ambient Temperatures

by Mubarak Alawadhi and Patrick E. Phelan

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2880; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15082880 - 14 Apr 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4729

Abstract

This article provides an overview of residential vapor-compression air conditioners operating under high ambient temperatures (HAT). For the purpose of this article, a minimum temperature criterion, 40 °C and above, was developed to evaluate studies that were conducted at HAT. Several HAT organizations [...] Read more.

This article provides an overview of residential vapor-compression air conditioners operating under high ambient temperatures (HAT). For the purpose of this article, a minimum temperature criterion, 40 °C and above, was developed to evaluate studies that were conducted at HAT. Several HAT organizations and projects were launched with the purpose of assessing the performance of low-GWP (GWP = global warming potential) refrigerants when operating under HAT and accelerating the transition to such refrigerants. Previous studies of air conditioner improvements (i.e., for condensers, evaporators, compressors, and refrigerants) were discussed under HAT conditions. This article also explores the challenges, the possible design modifications, and several limitations of air conditioners operating under HAT. Condenser improvements showed an 18 to 50% higher coefficient of performance (COP) and an 8 to 30% higher cooling capacity. Only one study was found for evaporator enhancement under HAT which improved the COP by ~7% and cooling capacity by ~10%. Experimental compressor improvements achieved 2 to 17 °C lower discharge temperature and up to 15% higher cooling capacity, whereas the COP ranged from −4% to +3% of the baseline values. Under HAT conditions, several A2L refrigerants exhibited an attractive performance compared to R-410A while none outperformed R-22 in terms of both cooling capacity and COP. Considering R-22 alternatives, all A1 refrigerants exhibited lower COP, A2L refrigerants achieved comparable COP, and A3 refrigerants reached higher COP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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12 pages, 3051 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Parameters Calibration and Energy-Saving Evaluation of Spectral Selective Absorption Film Coated Glazing System Based on Heat Transfer Simulation

by Xu Chen, Saihong Zhu and Tianyi Chen

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2780; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15082780 - 11 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1407

Abstract

Spectral selective absorption film (SSAF), a solar control film, has a special energy-saving mechanism. In the previous studies of SSAF coated glazing systems, thermal parameters (global thermal transmittance (U) and solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)) calculated by traditional algorithms were not verified. In [...] Read more.

Spectral selective absorption film (SSAF), a solar control film, has a special energy-saving mechanism. In the previous studies of SSAF coated glazing systems, thermal parameters (global thermal transmittance (U) and solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)) calculated by traditional algorithms were not verified. In order to evaluate the energy-saving effect of SSAF coated glazing systems accurately, U and the SHGC were calibrated and then used for energy consumption simulation. Firstly, the simulation models of the heat transfer process of SSAF coated glazing systems were established by COMSOL Multiphysics, considering simplified linear attenuation of radiative transfer. After being validated, the simulation models were used for the calibration of U and SHGC by the Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) model. As a result, the calibration coefficients of U and SHGC are 1.126 and 1.689, respectively. Secondly, the thermal parameters of SSAF coated glazing systems calibrated by the calibration coefficients were used for a building energy consumption simulation case. The result showed that the inner surface is the best coating position for single glazing systems (SG), while the outer surface is the best coating position for double glazing systems (DG) in hot summer and cold winter zone, hot summer and warm winter zone and the moderate zone of China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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16 pages, 8231 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Analysis of Influencing Factors of Carbon Emission in Public Buildings in China

by Zhuoqun Du, Yisheng Liu and Zhidong Zhang

Buildings 2022, 12(4), 424; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12040424 - 31 Mar 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2751

Abstract

The rapid development of public buildings has greatly increased the country’s energy consumption and carbon emissions. Excessive carbon emissions contribute to global warming. This paper aims to measure the carbon emissions in the operation of public buildings, and to identify the multiple influencing [...] Read more.

The rapid development of public buildings has greatly increased the country’s energy consumption and carbon emissions. Excessive carbon emissions contribute to global warming. This paper aims to measure the carbon emissions in the operation of public buildings, and to identify the multiple influencing factors of carbon emissions in operational public buildings. First, the spatial and temporal variation characteristics of carbon emissions from public buildings in 30 provinces of China from 2008–2019 are analyzed. Second, a green building index is constructed, and the STIRPAT (Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence, and Technology) model is utilized to explore the relationship between each influencing factor and carbon emissions, using spatial and temporal geographically weighted regression analysis. The results show that the effects of population, urbanization rate, GDP per capita, green building index, and industrial structure on carbon emissions from public buildings all show spatial correlation and differences. There are east-west differences in the operational carbon emissions of public buildings in China’s provinces. Cluster evolution shows a spatially increasing trend from west to east. To some extent, policymakers can develop appropriate policies for different provinces through the findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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22 pages, 5715 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Study on the Insulation Performance of a Photo-Thermal Roof in Hot Summer and Cold Winter Areas

by Ying Zhang, Hongfa Sun, Jibo Long, Li Zeng and Xiaohang Shen

Buildings 2022, 12(4), 410; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12040410 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2437

Abstract

The use of a solar architecture system is a feasible way to reduce the energy consumption of a building. The system also has important significance to the “Dual-carbon” plan. In this study, the heat transfer characteristics of a photo-thermal roof were analyzed in [...] Read more.

The use of a solar architecture system is a feasible way to reduce the energy consumption of a building. The system also has important significance to the “Dual-carbon” plan. In this study, the heat transfer characteristics of a photo-thermal roof were analyzed in hot summer and cold winter zones; a model to calculate insulation performance was established. In the summer climate, the thermal performances of the photo-thermal roof and an ordinary roof were explored through experiments and simulations. The results showed that the heat transfer and temperature of the photo-thermal roof were lower than those of the ordinary roof. Heat transfer through a photo-thermal roof can be changed by adjusting the water flow of collectors. The water saturation of insulation materials is an important factor that affects the insulation performance of a roof. Compared with the ordinary roof, the change in water saturation was shown to have less impact on the insulation performance of the photo-thermal roof. The water saturation increased from 0 to 30%, while the heat transfer per unit area of the photo-thermal roof only increased by 0.9 W/m²; 97.3% lower than that of the ordinary roof. The effect of reducing the insulation material thickness was less for the photo-thermal roof than for the ordinary roof. When the insulation material thickness was reduced from 100 mm to 0 mm, the average temperature in the indoor non-working area reached 38.5 °C and 27.1 °C in the ordinary roof and the photo-thermal roof, respectively. The insulation thickness of the photo-thermal roof had little effect on the indoor air temperature. The research results provide a reference for the roof energy-saving design of new buildings and the roof energy-saving transformation of existing buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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22 pages, 4955 KiB  

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Feasibility Study and Passive Design of Nearly Zero Energy Building on Rural Houses in Xi’an, China

by Han Chang, Yaolong Hou, Inhee Lee, Tianye Liu and Tri Dev Acharya

Buildings 2022, 12(3), 341; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12030341 - 11 Mar 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3575

Abstract

Since the advent of reforms and opening-up of China, the focus has been on urban development. However, rural development has garnered attention in recent years. This research explores energy performance improvement methods for rural houses in Xi’an, China. It aims to discuss the [...] Read more.

Since the advent of reforms and opening-up of China, the focus has been on urban development. However, rural development has garnered attention in recent years. This research explores energy performance improvement methods for rural houses in Xi’an, China. It aims to discuss the feasibility of designing a nearly zero-energy building (nZEB), based on typical residential rural housing in Xi’an, through proposing new construction methods and examining the strategies for the refurbishment of an existing house. Initially, a typical rural house was modelled based on data collected from a field survey and historical documents. Subsequently, suitable passive design strategies were explored in the rural house design both in terms of proposing new construction methods and examining the refurbishment strategies of an existing house. After implementation of the passive design, the annual energy demand was reduced from 112 kWh/m² to 68 kWh/m² (new construction) and from 112 kWh/m² to 85 kWh/m² (refurbished). Even though the passive design significantly reduced the energy demand of the house, it could not achieve the Chinese nZEB standard. Therefore, a photovoltaic (PV) system and a storage battery were incorporated to meet the standard. Eighty per cent of the south roof area of the newly constructed and refurbished house was installed with a PV system and a storage battery with a capacity of 50 kWh and 52 kWh, respectively. After installation of the proposed renewable energy, the annual energy demand from the house was decreased to 35 kWh/m² (new construction) and 51 kWh/m² (refurbished), which both achieved the Chinese nZEB standard (equal to or below 55 kWh/m²). The study shows the effectiveness of the methods used to design the nZEB and can be used to instruct the residents to build the nZEB in rural villages like Xi’an in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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20 pages, 5144 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Hybrid Ventilation Strategies in Energy Savings of Buildings: In Regard to Mixed-Humid Climate Regions

by Kyung-Yong Park, Deok-Oh Woo, Seung-Bok Leigh and Lars Junghans

Energies 2022, 15(6), 1960; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15061960 - 08 Mar 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1999

Abstract

It has been identified that improving building energy efficiency is an effective method to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Although standards have been established to satisfy a building’s minimum energy demand while ensuring the comfort of its residents, they are difficult to implement [...] Read more.

It has been identified that improving building energy efficiency is an effective method to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Although standards have been established to satisfy a building’s minimum energy demand while ensuring the comfort of its residents, they are difficult to implement in mixed-humid regions. This study proposes a hybrid ventilation strategy that can comprehensively reduce cooling, heating, and ventilation energy in mixed-humid climate regions to significantly decrease the primary energy demand and reduce the impact of buildings on the environment. This study evaluated the changes in energy saving potential and thermal comfort according to the extension of the natural ventilation period and passive strategies, such as decentralized ventilation. Changes in indoor air temperature, operative temperature, and PMV for each strategy were analyzed. As a result, extending the natural ventilation and the decentralized ventilation strategies can save 32% and 34% of the building’s energy, respectively. Considering that electricity is the main energy source for cooling in Korea, the extension of the natural ventilation period was judged to be the best approach from the perspective of primary energy demand. The results can be used to predict changes in building energy demand and thermal comfort and select an appropriate ventilation strategy based on occupant information obtained using Internet of Things. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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23 pages, 10221 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Research on Optimization of the Thermal Performance of Composite Rammed Earth Construction

by Shenwei Yu, Shimeng Hao, Jun Mu, Dongwei Tian and Mosha Zhao

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1519; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15041519 - 18 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2078

Abstract

Rammed earth (RE) is a low-tech recyclable building material with good heat storage and moisture absorption performance that can better maintain the stability of the indoor thermal environment and improve indoor comfort. With innovations in and the development of new technology, the field [...] Read more.

Rammed earth (RE) is a low-tech recyclable building material with good heat storage and moisture absorption performance that can better maintain the stability of the indoor thermal environment and improve indoor comfort. With innovations in and the development of new technology, the field of rammed earth construction technology is gradually expanding. However, deficiencies in the thermal insulation of traditional rammed earth structures make it impossible for them to meet China’s building energy codes in cold regions. This study constructs a comprehensive evaluation index of the thermal performance of rammed earth walls that is based on the heat transfer mechanism, optimizing the thickness of the boundary conditions of the building interior’s design temperature, as well as the energy demand and economic efficiency. This research also offers a new design for the thermal insulation of rammed earth construction by combining the building energy savings design code with WUFI Pro software. This study demonstrates that the optimum thickness of rammed earth construction in Beijing is about 360 mm, the thickness of extruded polystyrene board (XPS) is 50 mm (for public buildings) and 70 mm (for residential buildings), and the structural form of external insulation offers the highest performance benefit. In addition, this work also evaluates the risk of condensation inside composite rammed earth construction, finding that there is a risk of condensation on the exterior side of the wall and at the interface between the insulation panels and rammed earth wall, thus requiring an additional moisture-proof layer. In this study, thermal mass and insulation are fully considered and a design strategy for rammed earth construction given quantitatively, providing a theoretical basis for the application of rammed earth materials in cold regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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27 pages, 2204 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Possibility of Using Various Types of Renewable Energy Sources Installations in Single-Family Buildings as Part of Saving Final Energy Consumption in Polish Conditions

by Piotr Wróblewski and Mariusz Niekurzak

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1329; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15041329 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2176

Abstract

The aim of this work is to develop a model of heat supply to buildings with almost zero energy consumption, indicating the significant importance of heat losses and gains in heating installations. The prepared model is to indicate the need for changes in [...] Read more.

The aim of this work is to develop a model of heat supply to buildings with almost zero energy consumption, indicating the significant importance of heat losses and gains in heating installations. The prepared model is to indicate the need for changes in the structure and topology of heating installations, resulting from the changing heat demand of buildings. The need to create a new model is heightened by changes that relate to tightening legal regulations related to energy consumption and demand, which must meet the standards of buildings in Poland from 2021. The article presents the assumptions and results of analyses of the use of energy installations in residential buildings that use renewable energy sources to balance energy consumption in various areas of its use. To achieve this goal, calculations were made using simulations of the impact of the use of installations using renewable energy sources on the energy performance of a building with different quality of partitions and improvement of energy efficiency in accordance with the Polish standard PN-EN 12831. The test results allow to choose the most advantageous, from the point of view of economic profitability, option of replacing installations in residential buildings, and they also allow to determine the possibilities of meeting national obligations in the field of final energy reduction and increasing the share of renewable energy sources in meeting its demand in accordance with the EU obligations imposed on Poland. Thermomodernization of buildings in the temperate climate zone allows for a reduction of 38% of energy demand over the entire life cycle of a building and a reduction of CO₂ emissions by 99%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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14 pages, 2177 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Smart Evaluation Index of Roof SHS Suitability

by Juan Zhao, Yifei Bai, Junmei Gao, Tianwei Qiang and Pei Liang

Energies 2022, 15(3), 1164; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15031164 - 04 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1311

Abstract

The instability of solar energy and its resource distribution characteristics make it difficult to judge its suitability in practical engineering applications, which hinders its promotion and application. In order to better promote the effective use of solar energy and promote the solar heating [...] Read more.

The instability of solar energy and its resource distribution characteristics make it difficult to judge its suitability in practical engineering applications, which hinders its promotion and application. In order to better promote the effective use of solar energy and promote the solar heating system, it is necessary to put forward a simple method of judging the suitability of the solar heating system for engineering application. This study puts forward “F, Q” as the basis for judging the suitability of solar heating systems built on the roof. Two types of public buildings, office buildings and three-star hotels, are taken as the research objects. DeST software is used to change the heating area of the building by superimposing floors to simulate the heat load of the building when the heating area changes. A dynamic simulation coupling model of solar heating system is established in the TRNSYS software to analyze the operating status of the system under all working conditions. The functional relationship between “F, Q” and solar energy guarantee rate is established, and the solar energy contribution rate is divided into three regions of F < 30%, 30% ≤ F ≤ 50%, and F > 50%. The evaluation standard of the building suitability of the solar energy heating system is established according to the scope of “F, Q” in different regions (An office building for, e.g., if the contribution rate of solar heating system is required to be greater than 50%, the “F” of these four areas should be greater than 0.11388, 0.15543, 0.10572, and 0.04511.), and the effectiveness of “F” is verified through actual cases verified by other scholars in the research. The method proposed in this paper is helpful to judge the suitability of solar heating systems in different regions and different types of conventional buildings, so as to better promote solar heating systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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25 pages, 10502 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

A Forecasting Method for Macro-Control Policy of Heating Energy Consumption and Carbon Emissions Based on Building Area and Energy Intensity: A Case Study of Northern China

by Yu Zheng, Wenlong Yin, Wenjie Zhang, Jinhan Liang, Kangyong Liu and Kuan Wang

Energies 2022, 15(3), 1153; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15031153 - 04 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1786

Abstract

In response to extreme climate change, China has set a goal of reaching emission peak by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Energy conservation and emission reduction of building heating in northern China are key to achieving this goal. Based on building [...] Read more.

In response to extreme climate change, China has set a goal of reaching emission peak by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Energy conservation and emission reduction of building heating in northern China are key to achieving this goal. Based on building area prediction and energy consumption intensity, this paper establishes a model for calculating heating energy consumption and carbon emissions in northern residential buildings at the macro level, which provides a basis for formulating policies related to heating and emission reduction in northern buildings. Based on the research method of scenario projection, combining the carbon emission subsets and future heating energy mix projections in northern China, the heating energy consumption in northern China decreases to 175, 149 and 135 Mtce in 2050 under the baseline, medium control and strict control scenarios, respectively. The heating energy consumption in the northern region should be controlled at least under the medium control scheme. Under this scenario, building heating carbon emissions in the north could be reduced to 450 MtCO₂ by 2050, or 280 MtCO₂ if more stringent abatement technologies are adopted. In order to achieve this goal, a combination of energy-saving technologies must be used. The use of biomass and solar technologies should be emphasized in rural heating, while envelope renovation makes the greatest contribution to heating energy savings, with envelope renovation contributing up to 92 Mtce to urban heating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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15 pages, 4187 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Waterfront Office Redevelopment Plan on Optimal Building Arrangements with Rooftop Photovoltaics: A Case Study for Shinagawa, Tokyo

by Younghun Choi, Takuro Kobashi, Yoshiki Yamagata and Akito Murayama

Energies 2022, 15(3), 883; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15030883 - 26 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2640

Abstract

Designing waterfront redevelopment generally focuses on attractiveness, leisure, and beauty, resulting in various types of building and block shapes with limited considerations on environmental aspects. However, increasing climate change impacts necessitate these buildings to be sustainable, resilient, and zero CO₂ emissions. By [...] Read more.

Designing waterfront redevelopment generally focuses on attractiveness, leisure, and beauty, resulting in various types of building and block shapes with limited considerations on environmental aspects. However, increasing climate change impacts necessitate these buildings to be sustainable, resilient, and zero CO₂ emissions. By producing five scenarios (plus existing buildings) with constant floor areas, we investigated how buildings and district forms with building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) affect energy consumption and production, self-sufficiency, CO₂ emission, and energy costs in the context of waterfront redevelopment in Tokyo. From estimated hourly electricity demands of the buildings, techno-economic analyses were conducted for rooftop PV systems for 2018 and 2030 with declining costs of rooftop PV systems. We found that environmental building designs with rooftop PV system are increasingly economical in Tokyo with CO₂ emission reduction of 2–9% that depends on rooftop sizes. Payback periods drop from 14 years in 2018 to 6 years in 2030. Toward net-zero CO₂ emissions by 2050, immediate actions are necessary to install rooftop PVs on existing and new buildings with energy efficiency improvements by construction industry and building owners. To facilitate such actions, national and local governments need to adopt appropriate policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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23 pages, 2467 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Climate Change on a University Campus’ Energy Use: Use of Machine Learning and Building Characteristics

by Haekyung Im, Ravi S. Srinivasan, Daniel Maxwell, Ruth L. Steiner and Sayar Karmakar

Buildings 2022, 12(2), 108; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/buildings12020108 - 23 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3383

Abstract

Global warming is expected to increase 1.5 °C between 2030 and 2052. This may lead to an increase in building energy consumption. With the changing climate, university campuses need to prepare to mitigate risks with building energy forecasting models. Although many scholars have [...] Read more.

Global warming is expected to increase 1.5 °C between 2030 and 2052. This may lead to an increase in building energy consumption. With the changing climate, university campuses need to prepare to mitigate risks with building energy forecasting models. Although many scholars have developed buildings energy models (BEMs), only a few have focused on the interpretation of the meaning of BEM, including climate change and its impacts. Additionally, despite several review papers on BEMs, there is no comprehensive guideline indicating which variables are appropriate to use to explain building energy consumption. This study developed building energy prediction models by using statistical analysis: multivariate regression models, multiple linear regression (MLR) models, and relative importance analysis. The outputs are electricity (ELC) and steam (STM) consumption. The independent variables used as inputs are building characteristics, temporal variables, and meteorological variables. Results showed that categorizing the campus buildings by building type is critical, and the equipment power density is the most important factor for ELC consumption, while the heating degree is the most critical factor for STM consumption. The laboratory building type is the most STM-consumed building type, so it needs to be monitored closely. The prediction models give an insight into which building factors remain essential and applicable to campus building policy and campus action plans. Increasing STM is to raise awareness of the severity of climate change through future weather scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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23 pages, 488 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

eSCIFI: An Energy Saving Mechanism for WLANs Based on Machine Learning

by Guilherme Henrique Apostolo, Flavia Bernardini, Luiz C. Schara Magalhães and Débora C. Muchaluat-Saade

Energies 2022, 15(2), 462; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15020462 - 10 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1147

Abstract

As wireless local area networks grow in size to provide access to users, power consumption becomes an important issue. Power savings in a large-scale Wi-Fi network, with low impact to user service, is undoubtedly desired. In this work, we propose and evaluate the [...] Read more.

As wireless local area networks grow in size to provide access to users, power consumption becomes an important issue. Power savings in a large-scale Wi-Fi network, with low impact to user service, is undoubtedly desired. In this work, we propose and evaluate the eSCIFI energy saving mechanism for Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). eSCIFI is an energy saving mechanism that uses machine learning algorithms as occupancy demand estimators. The eSCIFI mechanism is designed to cope with a broader range of WLANs, which includes Wi-Fi networks such as the Fluminense Federal University (UFF) SCIFI network. The eSCIFI can cope with WLANs that cannot acquire data in a real time manner and/or possess a limited CPU power. The eSCIFI design also includes two clustering algorithms, named cSCIFI and cSCIFI+, that help to guarantee the network’s coverage. eSCIFI uses those network clusters and machine learning predictions as input features to an energy state decision algorithm that then decides which Access Points (AP) can be switched off during the day. To evaluate eSCIFI performance, we conducted several trace-driven simulations comparing the eSCIFI mechanism using both clustering algorithms with other energy saving mechanisms found in the literature using the UFF SCIFI network traces. The results showed that eSCIFI mechanism using the cSCIFI+ clustering algorithm achieves the best performance and that it can save up to 64.32% of the UFF SCIFI network energy without affecting the user coverage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)

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