2.1. Organizational Culture
Socialization is the process by which individuals acquire a cognitive frame of reference and behavior patterns characteristic of their culture [
4]. Culture, therefore, is the fundamental mechanism as the members of a social or organizational group give meaning to reality and behave in that direction. In organizational contexts, Deal and Kennedy [
5] characterized culture as the way of doing things in the entity. Culture is formed by opinions, beliefs, expectations, and regulations that connect the individual with the organization [
6]. In a complementary way, Swidler [
7] defined culture as symbolic values of shared beliefs, rituals, practices, and language. Schein [
8] described organizational culture as the aggregate of basic assumptions about the surrounding world, which are shared by a group of people and determine the way they perceive, think, and behave. Chevrier [
9] stated that people who are embedded in a particular culture share their views of the world. Hartnell et al. [
10] described culture as values and beliefs that represent normative expectations, which inform about how individuals will behave. Culture manifests itself through language, symbols, rituals, and behavior [
11].
Organizational culture is considered a practice that cultivates awareness, individual development, and diversity in a particular context [
12]. Willson [
13] found that unresolved conflicts about organizational culture lead to rule-breaking and the prevalence of pessimistic approaches by group members.
One of the best-known analyses of culture is that developed by Hofstede [
14], who considered that national culture influences organizational culture. For Hofstede et al. [
15], organizational culture is a type of collective programming that helps to distinguish the people of one organization from another. For Hofstede [
14], the culture construct, in its initial version, had four dimensions. The first is called power distance and is defined as the degree to which a society accepts the unequal distribution of power. In organizations, the degree of centralization of authority is related to the level of power distance. In lower power distance environments, people from different social statuses tend to have more interactions than those in high power distance environments. The second dimension is individualism–collectivism; individualism occurs when people taking care of themselves is considered a priority and collectivism operates when the priority is expected to be in the needs of the group or society and not of individuals. In individualistic societies, employees’ achievements are highly valued. In collective cultures, workers tend to focus on consensus and interdependence. The third dimension is uncertainty avoidance, defined as the degree to which the individual feels threatened by ambiguous situations and therefore avoids them. Uncertainty avoidance organizations reduce ambiguity by establishing formal rules and not tolerating deviant behaviors. The fourth dimension is masculinity–femininity, which indicates the degree to which the values of society are more masculine or feminine. In masculine societies, males have dominant roles to be competitive, while females are expected to take service-oriented roles. Masculine organizations tend to reward top performers. Dorfman and Howell [
16] adapted Hofstede’s instrument and included a new dimension that they called paternalism, which assesses the degree to which bosses care about the needs of workers and take care of them. Paternalism is a hierarchical relationship in which a leader guides the professional and personal lives of collaborators in a manner resembling a parent, promoting deference. Paternalistic leaders combine benevolence with authority. Paternalism promotes workers’ welfare while offering career-related support.
There are studies on the dimensions of culture. Esen et al. [
17] found that uncertainty avoidance has a direct effect on purchasing behavior, while collectivism has an indirect effect. Danish et al. [
18] concluded that knowledge management practices have a positive effect on organizational effectiveness and that this effect is moderated by organizational culture. In the same direction, Asree et al. [
19] found that organizational culture has a positive relationship with the sensitivity of an organization.
2.2. Knowledge Management and Sustainability
Sustainability is a challenging concept which is socially and politically constructed and reflects the interest and values of those involved [
20]. Sustainability is starting to transform the competitive landscape, which will force companies to change the way they think about products, technologies, processes, and business models [
21]. Organizational sustainability increasingly focuses on how to manage new knowledge of ideas and practices that can expand business [
22]. Knowledge management in the context of sustainability is little explored and there are many possibilities of academic research [
23]. One of these is the role of culture as a facilitator of knowledge sharing oriented to the achievement of strategic goals.
In the context of sustainability, knowledge management is treated as a new paradigm of development that aims to enhance compliance with the guidelines of economic, environmental, and social sustainability [
24]. Any sustainable initiative becomes of great relevance when it causes positive changes in the community involved [
25]. From the social dimension, organizations must be concerned about the welfare of their workers [
26]. Sustainability should be addressed not only for environmental concerns or society’s expectations but because it makes good business sense [
27]. Sustainability can enhance business efficiency and the search for competitive advantage [
28]. Sustainability is partly based on skills generated by knowledge [
29].
2.3. Knowledge Sharing
Knowledge is a crucial asset in organizations, which contributes to obtaining competitive advantages [
30] and to organizational effectiveness [
31]. Knowledge is classified as tacit and explicit [
32]. Explicit knowledge is characterized by being formally codified; therefore, it can be expressed through language and can be explained in steps. It can be transmitted via formal mechanisms in the entity, such as by email. In contrast, tacit knowledge is not yet documented but is in the head of the individual in the form of expertise, experience, intuitions, and beliefs. Tacit knowledge is acquired through observation and assimilation of experiences [
33]. It is characterized by containing the abilities of an individual that are difficult to describe through language [
34], and therefore difficult to document and store.
Knowledge sharing is a topic that has been growing in the knowledge management literature. Serenko and Bontis [
35] stated that knowledge sharing is one of the most important research topics in organizational management. Knowledge sharing is a resource that enables entities to obtain their objectives and reduce unwanted phenomena such as turnover [
36], as well as to improve the performance of their areas [
37]. This concept is also defined as the exchange of experience and tacit and explicit knowledge between employees [
38]. Knowledge sharing is a social interaction that involves the exchange of skills between workers [
39], and the exchange of information, ideas, and suggestions [
40]. Van den Hooff and de Ridder [
41] defined knowledge sharing as the process of mutual exchange of knowledge and its collective construction.
There are multiple studies on the influence of personal variables on knowledge sharing. For example, about personality, Gupta [
42] showed that more meticulous people are more involved in knowledge sharing actions. Bock et al. [
43] documented a positive relationship between subjective norms and knowledge sharing. Cabrera et al. [
44] found a correlation between self-efficacy and knowledge sharing. There is also a positive relationship between the perceived value of knowledge and knowledge sharing [
45]. At the same time, Xue et al. [
46] showed that the team environment and the support of senior management influence employee attitude to sharing knowledge.
2.4. Knowledge Sharing and Culture
Culture plays an important role for organizations to achieve the concept of sustainability [
47]. Culture is the center point for sustainability awareness [
48]. Developing an organizational culture that encompasses sustainable issues acts as a powerful source of competitive advantage [
49]. The management practice of sustainability has a direct link with the organizational culture [
48].
An issue that has been less studied is how knowledge sharing is influenced by organizational culture. Concerning a topic associated with culture, organizational climate, Bock et al. [
43] found that it affects the intention to share knowledge. In another similar study, Jalili and Salemipour [
50] established a relationship between the emotional climate of workgroups and the behavior of knowledge sharing. Zhang [
51] found a relationship between national culture and the attitude to share knowledge in virtual teams. Turban and Aronson [
52] stated that there is a relationship between knowledge sharing and culture. Stojanovic-Aleksic et al. [
53] were a step forward and indicated that an organizational culture based on support is a good predictor of knowledge sharing. Yi [
54] argued that a leadership style based on the proper example is a relevant mechanism to strengthen an organizational culture oriented to knowledge sharing. In the same direction, Lei et al. [
55] showed that a collaborative and knowledge-centered culture mediates the relationship between ethical leadership and the knowledge sharing behavior of employees.
Lee et al. [
56] found that clan-like organizational culture positively impacts knowledge sharing. Along the same lines, Rohim and Budhiasa [
57] asserted that a clan-like culture moderates the relationship between remuneration and knowledge sharing. Zheng and Zhong [
58], in a supply chain study, supported those findings. In his study, Luu [
59] found a relationship between an adhocratic culture and knowledge sharing. In addition, Sung-Jin [
60] showed that the greater the sharing of knowledge, the greater the innovative organizational culture. Talat et al. [
61] evidenced the mediating role of knowledge sharing between the variables of organizational culture oriented to learning and spirituality in the workplace. For their part, Brown and Frame [
62] identified collaboration as the mechanism through which organizational culture facilitates knowledge sharing. In the same direction, Memon et al. [
63] reported a relationship between an organizational culture that encourages its workers and the sharing of tacit knowledge. Jarrah et al. [
64] supported the hypothesis that knowledge sharing mediates the relationship between a culture based on obedience and organizational performance. Suppiah and Sandhu [
65] found that organizational culture influenced tacit knowledge sharing. Finally, Kivrak et al. [
66], in the context of project development, established that difficulties in communication and lack of trust are critical barriers to sharing knowledge.
Few studies have taken Hofstede’s classification as a basis to relate culture and knowledge sharing and none in Latin America. Michailova and Hutchings [
67] compared the relationship between knowledge sharing and culture in Russia and China. For them, vertical collectivism led to an intensive relationship between the members of the organization, which facilitated knowledge sharing in both countries. Sandhu and Ching [
68] in Malaysia also supported the hypothesis that vertical collectivism, like horizontal collectivism, influenced knowledge sharing behavior. Cummings [
69], for his part, asserted that organizations with collectivist cultures share knowledge. Arpaci and Baloglu in Turkey [
70] documented that cultural collectivism positively impacted attitudes towards knowledge sharing. Trier et al. [
71] found that uncertainty is a barrier for knowledge sharing and workers avoid it. Stock et al. [
72] documented that coping with uncertainty is relevant in the context of knowledge sharing linked to new product development projects. Lee et al. [
73] in China showed a correlation between paternalistic leadership and knowledge sharing in their collaborators. Pellegrini et al. [
74] reported a correlation between paternalism and information exchange between leaders and collaborators in the United States and India. From the above, the following hypothesis was formulated:
Hypothesis 1. Collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and paternalism are directed related to sharing tacit and explicit knowledge.
On the other hand, highly masculine cultures place more emphasis on competitiveness that triggers knowledge hoarding and creates a hurdle for knowledge sharing [
75]. Rivera-Vasquez et al. [
76] argued that in a culture with a high level of masculinity, communication tends to be more aggressive and less oriented to knowledge sharing. Persson [
77] reported no relation between masculinity and knowledge sharing. Brijball [
78] in South Africa found that high masculinity and high distance power were not related to knowledge sharing. Moreover, Ardichvili et al. [
79] asserted that when power distance is strong, knowledge sharing is not welcome. Chiu et al. [
80] found that the relationship between positive affect and knowledge sharing is negatively moderated by power distance. Finally, Kucharska and Bedford [
81] found that the influence of masculinity on knowledge sharing is mediated by job satisfaction. From the above, the following hypothesis was formulated:
Hypothesis 2. Masculinity and power distance are not directly related to sharing tacit and explicit knowledge.
There are no published studies that investigate whether the cultural values exposed by Hofstede differentially influence the sharing of tacit and explicit knowledge. This investigation serves as an exploratory study that opens a line of future research. However, there are studies like the one published by Suppiah and Sandhu [
65] that reinforce the relationship between organizational cultural and tacit knowledge and the one by Celestine and Perryer [
82] in Europe where collectivism and power distance acted as moderator variables in the relationship between intrinsic motivation and tacit knowledge sharing. Zhang [
51] in Hong Kong found that participants under cultures with low uncertainty avoidance were responsive to sharing explicit knowledge. From the above, the following hypothesis was formulated:
Hypothesis 3. Cultural values influence tacit and explicit knowledge in the same way.
In summary, this study tests the relationship between five cultural values and the behavior of sharing tacit and explicit knowledge.