Next Article in Journal
On the Sustainable Utilization of Geopolymers for Safe Management of Radioactive Waste: A Review
Previous Article in Journal
Improvement of Factory Transport Efficiency with Use of WiFi-Based Technique for Monitoring Industrial Vehicles
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 15
Issue 2
10.3390/su15021111
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Impact of Various LED Light Spectra on Tomato Preservation

by
Kulyash Meiramkulova
1,
Davud Devrishov
2,
Zhanar Adylbek
1,*,
Assel Kydyrbekova
3,
Sayan Zhangazin
4,
Rimma Ualiyeva
5,
Aliya Temirbekova
1,
Gulmira Adilbektegi
1 and
Timoth Mkilima
6
1
Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Satpayev Str. 2, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
2
Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology, 23 Scryabin Str., 109472 Moscow, Russia
3
Department of Management, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Satpayev Str. 2, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
4
Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Satpayev Str. 2, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
5
Department of Biology and Ecology Non-Profit Joint Stock Company, Toraighyrov University, 64, Lomov Str., Pavlodar 140008, Kazakhstan
6
Department of Civil Engineering, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Satpayev Str. 2, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(2), 1111; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15021111
Submission received: 10 December 2022 / Revised: 24 December 2022 / Accepted: 3 January 2023 / Published: 6 January 2023
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Major losses of fresh tomatoes happen during post-harvest storage due to prompt senescence and diseases. The aim of the research was to evaluate the effects of different spectra of LED lights on the post-harvest preservation of ascorbic acid, lycopene, and total soluble solids, the weight and size of tomato fruits, as well as to determine the optimal exposure time and distance of irradiation and extension of shelf-life. Therefore, experiments were carried out in a climate chamber with shelves equipped with three different light spectra: red light-emitting diodes, red–blue–white light-emitting diodes, and ultraviolet-light-emitting diodes. Light treatment had a certain positive effect on the firmness, size, and mass of samples. Thus, tomato fruits (Panekra) exposed to the spectra of LED lights demonstrated a better quality of firmness and mass compared to the control samples (non-preserved) of tomatoes. The treatments with RL significantly improved the concentration of lycopene than FL and UV-LED lights, although the highest concentration of lycopene was observed in the control samples for the first 7 days of the storage. After 21 days, the ascorbic acid content in the red spectrum was found to be much higher than in the other two spectra and control samples, coming in at about 1.8 mg/100 mL compared to 1.0 mg/100 mL for the control samples. Total soluble solids also increased significantly after preservation, rising from 3.9 °Brix in the control samples to roughly 7.3 °Brix in samples preserved using the full spectrum after 21 days. Overall, the results of the study demonstrated that tomato preservation using the investigated techniques induced lycopene concentration, ascorbic acid, and total soluble solids concentrations. The results derived from this study provide highly useful information in the field of post-harvest preservation.

1. Introduction

The annual production of fresh tomatoes is roughly equal to 75% for the fresh market and 25% for processing on a global scale [1]. On the other hand, one of the main food sources of carotenoids is the tomato, which provides around 80% of the recommended daily intake of lycopene [2]. Due to their nutritional importance, fresh fruits have been recognized as a significant source of vitamins and antioxidants and as a crucial component of the human diet and welfare [3]. Numerous healthy vitamins and minerals can be found in fruits and vegetables. As a result, a healthy, balanced diet must include both fruits and vegetables as necessary ingredients [4]. They are a great source of dietary fiber, which supports gut health and helps to prevent constipation and other digestive issues [5]. A high-fiber diet can also lower the risk of developing colon cancer [6,7,8]. Tomatoes are one of the most significant and popular greenhouse crops in the world. Lycopene, an antioxidant with several health advantages, including a decreased risk of cancer and heart disease, is mostly found in tomatoes [9]. Nutrients including vitamin C, potassium, folate, and vitamin K are also abundant in them [10].
Unfortunately, despite their significance in daily life, tomatoes are a highly perishable fruit with a short shelf life at ambient temperatures, and they continue to alter even after harvest [11,12]. In general, there are many technologies used for the preservation of perishable foods. However, efficiency and cost-effectiveness remain as significant issues of concern in the field. Fruit spoilage is one of the main contributors to food wastage, with an estimated 30% of produce rendered unfit for consumption due to deterioration [13]. One of the main reasons for the loss of tomato fruits is poor post-harvest handling of the produce. The lack of proper storage facilities and poor transportation and distribution channels are major factors that cause losses [14]. Microorganisms harm most fruits and vegetables, which makes them spoil quickly [15]. Water and nutrients are necessary for microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and molds to thrive, produce energy, and reproduce. As pectins are broken down by bacterial spoilage, tissues first become softer. Eventually, the entire fruit may turn into a slimy sludge. Following the metabolism of starch and sugar, unpleasant flavors and odors, as well as lactic acid and ethanol, develop [16].
Currently, the most commonly used method for fruit preservation is refrigeration [17]. However, vitamins B and C are destroyed by refrigeration [18]. Compared to fresh fruits, frozen fruits also have fewer antioxidants, which guard against cellular deterioration. Therefore, it is imperative to research and develop new technologies to enhance tomato preservation throughout the world. One of the potential technologies for the preservation of tomatoes is the use of ultraviolet light-emitting diodes (UV-LEDs). Compared to traditional UV lights, LED lighting is said to be an economical and energy-efficient technology [19]. As a residue-free physical sterilization and preservation method, light-emitting diode (LED) treatment has recently been applied for the post-harvest storage of fruits and vegetables. For instance, Kim et al. [20], conducted a study on the antibacterial effectiveness of 405 nm LEDs on freshly cut mango, Zhang et al. [21], used light-emitting diodes for improving the preservation of fresh foods, and as Kim et al. [22], used UV LED on carrots.
Supplemental red–blue LEDs have been shown to increase the photosynthetic light use efficiency and the levels of phytohormones such as jasmonate which improve crop quality [23]. This shows the potential for the beneficial post-harvest effects of visible light illumination. While some studies have already demonstrated the potential for LED illumination to retain or even enhance the physicochemical properties of post-harvest fruits such as mangoes and bananas [24], the effects of LED irradiation on the physicochemical properties of tomatoes have been minimally studied, mostly limited to only basic physical properties such as color and texture [25].
Based on the potential advantages of post-harvest LED lighting irradiation of fruits and vegetables and insufficient knowledge of its effects, the current study designed an experimental red spectrum, full spectrum LED, and UV-LED lighting facility and researched their optimal modes and effects on the post-harvest preservation of ASA, lycopene, and TSS content, as well as on the physicochemical properties and the extension of the shelf life of treated tomato fruits.
Apart from the shelf-life extension, UV LED lighting makes the fruits safer for consumption and prevents diseases caused by microorganisms [26]. As one of the most prevalent causes of disease in humans, intestinal parasite infections result in significant morbidity and mortality. Commonly eaten raw fruits and vegetables are among the ways that people become sick from important medical parasites [27].
Moreover, sanitizing fruit and vegetables with UV light has the potential to prevent the growth of microorganisms without degrading the quality of the produce [28]. Compared to regularly used chemicals such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, or ozone, which can leave residues and eventually lower quality, UV radiation has the potential to be more successful at reducing microbial growth. The process is achieved by triggering the formation of specific thymine or cytosine dimers in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and uracil dimers in ribonucleic acid (RNA), which causes the inactivation of microbes by causing mutations and/or cell death and failure to reproduce [29]. Due to the lack of sufficient and effective preservation technologies, the field continues to face tremendous challenges. Therefore, there is currently an increasing demand to develop sustainable methods to control these post-harvest losses.
Therefore, in this study, the potential applicability of various LED light spectra on tomato post-harvest preservation is investigated. The experiments were conducted for this aim in a climatic chamber that included shelves with three different light spectra: red light-emitting diodes (LED) (RL), red–blue–white light-emitting diodes (full spectrum), and UV-light emitting diodes (LED) UV-LED.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample Characteristics and Stored Conditions

Tomato fruits (Panekra) (5.4 to 7.65 cm diameter) with a light red maturity level were taken from the greenhouse of the LED System Media LLP located in Astana, Kazakhstan. The average yearly temperature is between −5 °F (−20.6 °C) and 79 °F (26.1 °C), rarely falling below −24 °F (−31.1 °C) or rising above 91 °F (32.8 °C). With an average rainfall of 47 mm, July is the month with the most precipitation. Astana receives 292 mm of average precipitation per year. Additionally, Astana is 347 m (1138 feet) above sea level. The samples were stored (at room temperature around 20 °C) in the Water Management laboratory of L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Each tomato from the control samples and each group of the investigated preservation techniques was chosen on day 0 and marked for scaling and dimension measurements. Then the tomatoes were equally distributed into three storage shelves of the experimental facility, each with a different light spectrum and intensity mode. The samples were kept at a distance of 40 cm from the LED lights. The temperature in the climate chamber was maintained at 13–15 °C, with humidity at 85% correspondingly. The control samples were stored in cardboard in the dark at room temperature. Each week during the study period, the samples’ investigation process was carried out.

2.2. LED Irradiation Modes

The experiment consisted of three different preservation techniques (red light-emitting diodes (LED) (RL), red–blue–white light-emitting diodes (full spectrum), and UV-light emitting diodes (LED) UV-LED) and was replicated seven times. The temperature, humidity, and irradiation modes of the experimental facility were monitored 24 h a day by means of the remote digital control system installed in the experimental facility. Tomato fruits were subjected to irradiation for 21 days with 15 tomato samples in each group being sampled every seventh day for the determination of ascorbic acid, lycopene contents, total soluble solids, firmness and size, fruit mass, and moisture content. The same process was carried out with control tomatoes stored in the dark for the same period. Tomato fruits were irradiated with RL-LED lights and FL-LED lights for 2 h a day, and samples treated with UV-LED light were irradiated for 2 min 3 times a day. Excessive exposure to UV light causes stress in plant tissues and stimulates the biosynthesis of defensive secondary metabolites with antioxidant and screening activity. Examples of these compounds include lycopene in tomatoes. The irradiation modes were set by the remote digital control system and monitored on the mobile phone. Every seventh day, external quality parameters (mass and firmness) of the same four tomato fruits of a replicate were also evaluated to track weight loss and the dimension diminishing process. The summary of the preservation architecture is presented in Figure 1.
A summary of the cases examined in the study at each exposure time is given in Table 1, which is primarily classified into three groups (7-day exposure time, 14-day exposure time, and 21-day exposure time).

2.3. Experimental Setup

The experimental facility was designed in the form of a refrigerator with three chambers. Each chamber was equipped with LED lights of a certain spectrum, as the first shelf was equipped with red spectrum LED lights, the second shelf-with full spectrum LED lights, and the third shelf of the climate chamber was irradiated with UV-LED lights. Each LED light was installed at a distance of 40 cm from the samples. The LED light modules and packaging did not contain materials and substances hazardous to life, human health, and the environment. LED lights consisted of LED modules, a power supply, heat sink housing, and suspension devices. The body of the LED lights was made of high-quality anodized aluminum. The protective glass of the LED lights was made of optical polycarbonate stabilized to LED radiation. The LEDs of NICHIA CORPORATION (Japan) were used in the lamps. The nominal lamp life was 40,000 operating hours (L 90 F 10 ≥ 40,000 h, complies with national standard GOST R 56230-2014 (RF), IEC/PAS 62717:2011 (EU)). Optical parameters of full spectrum LED lights are given in Table 1 below. LED modules consisted of LEDs of a certain spectrum and a printed circuit board. The research team made sure that other parameters such as temperature and airflow conditions, which can affect storage conditions, remained constant throughout the investigation. The technical specifications of the full spectrum are summarized in Table 2.

2.4. Analytical Methods

Every seventh day, external quality parameters (mass, size, and firmness) of the same four tomato fruits of a replicate were evaluated. For the evaluation of the preservation of ascorbic acid, lycopene, and total soluble solids (TSS), every seventh day a tomato fruit from each group was randomly selected and subjected to analysis. Several research works [30,31,32,33], have suggested the use of the simple and rapid analytical method of determining lycopene carotenoid–rich samples by using a simple and rapid spectrophotometric method for the extraction of lycopene from the food samples with hexane. The spectrophotometric method was employed to quantify the lycopene content in the food samples.

2.4.1. Lycopene Content Analysis

The lycopene content of tomato fruits was measured spectrophotometrically using a UV-VIS Spectrophotometer (METTLER TOLEDO, Columbus, Ohio, United States) at 503 nm after extraction with hexane [34]. A total of 1 g of homogenized tomato was mixed with 20 mL of acetone: ethanol: hexane (1:1:2). The mixture was stirred for 15 min. Then, 3 mL of water was added, and the sample was shaken on ice. The sample was left at room temperature for 5 min. The upper layer was transferred to a cuvette and its absorbance was read at 503 nm [35]. The lycopene content was calculated using Equation (1):
Lycopene   content   μ g g = A 503 ×   V   × 106 ε   × 100 ×   m
Whereby,
ε = molar extinction coefficient
m —a mass of the sample in g
V = total volume of extract
A = absorbance of the diluted extract sample
The molar extinction coefficient (ε) is a unit of measurement for the degree to which a chemical species or substance absorbs light of a specific wavelength. Chemical species have this inherent quality, which is determined by their chemical makeup and structure. A total of 5 mL of acetone, 5 mL of ethanol, and 10 mL of hexane were added to each sample. Stirring on ice was performed for 15 min. A total of 3 mL of deionized water was added after shaking. Mixtures of the samples and added solvents were shaken for 5 min on ice and then left at room temperature for 5 min to allow the separation of both phases. The lycopene layer was then analyzed by scanning in a UV- VIS Spectrophotometer (METTLER TOLEDO, Columbus, Ohio, United States), and the concentration of lycopene was calculated by using the Beer–Lambert equation. The absorbance of the lycopene layer (upper layer) was measured in a 1-cm-path length quartz cuvette at 503 nm blanked with hexane after suitable calibration of the instrument with hexane.

2.4.2. Ascorbic Acid Content

Ascorbic acid content was analyzed with UV–VIS spectroscopy (METTLER TOLEDO, Columbus, OH, USA). Ten grams of the sample was blended, and the blended sample was homogenized with about 50 mL of acetic acid solution. Then it was quantitatively poured into a 100 mL volumetric flask and was shaken gently until a homogenous dispersion was obtained. Then it was diluted up to the mark by an acetic acid solution. After that, the solution was filtered, and the clear filtrate was collected for the determination of vitamin C in that sample. A few drops of bromine water were added to the filtrated sample solution until the solution became colored. Then a few drops of thiourea solution were added to the solution to remove the excess bromine and obtain a clear solution. Then 2,4-Dinitrophenyl hydrazine solution was added thoroughly with all standards and also with the oxidized ascorbic acid. The total vitamin C-employing coupling reaction of 2,4-Dinitrophenyl hydrazine dye with vitamin C and spectrophotometric determination were performed at a wavelength of 280 nm.

2.4.3. Change in Fruit Mass

To determine the physiological weight loss, tomato fruits were weighed using a weighing machine (METTLER TOLEDO, Columbus, OH, USA) before the treatment which served as the initial fruit weight. The fruit mass and loss in weight were recorded every seventh day. The weight on the 21st day served as the final weight of the samples. The physiological loss in mass was calculated by the following formula and expressed as a percentage.
PLW   % = Initial   fruit   weight − fruit   weight   after   preservation Initial   fruit   weight

2.4.4. Firmness and Size

The firmness of tomato fruits was manually evaluated by gently pressing the fruit with the fingertips. The firmness was measured every seventh day on a certain sample of tomato fruits to track the changes in firmness. Changes in the size of tomato fruits were measured every seventh day with a 150 mm vernier caliper. Tomato fruits were marked to measure at the same part to obtain more accurate data on the size changes.

2.4.5. Total Soluble Solids (TSS)

Total soluble solids (TSS) were measured from the blended and filtered sample with a held refractometer (URL-1) (Bioevopeak Co., Shandong, China) by dropping a small amount of the filtered sample on the lens and noting down the results expressed as °Brix.

2.4.6. Moisture Content

After weighing some aluminum foil, the digital sensitive balance was reset to zero. The initial moisture content of the samples was determined by drying them at 105 °C for 24 h, moving them to a desiccator, allowing them to cool, and then weighing the dehydrated samples and expressing them as kg water/kg dry solids. The samples were then transferred to the desiccator and allowed to cool. Then, the samples were weighed after dehydration. The dehydrated tomato powders’ percent moisture contents were estimated as follows [36];
Moisture   content   % = w 1 − w 2 w 1 × 100
where w1 is the sample’s weight prior to dehydration, and w2 is the sample’s weight following dehydration.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The examined parameters of interest were used to compute the correlation indices. These indices had a significant role in determining how strongly the selected parameters related to one another. A high correlation, according to the indices, typically meant that two or more variables were tightly related to one another. The variables were not significantly associated if there was a minimal connection between them. Ratings for the correlation included “poor,” “moderate,” “strong,” and “extremely strong” (0.3–0.49, 0.5–0.69, and 0.7–1, respectively) [37]. The statistical significance of the changes in the analyzed parameters was also evaluated in this study using a single-factor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The method evaluates the degree of variance in the data from the researched parameters within each group using samples from each group. The discrepancy between the p-values and alpha (0.05) values was used to assess the significance level. It is also critical to keep in mind that, even if the null hypothesis is true, the alpha number represents your chances of rejecting it. The null hypothesis is accepted if the p-value exceeds the alpha value. The p-value, on the other hand, shows the chance of obtaining a result that is more extreme than the one you received from the experiment [38]. Tukey’s Honest Significance Test was also utilized in the study. It was used to determine whether the means of the parameters under investigation had any statistically significant deviations. All statistical procedures were carried out with the aid of Microsoft Excel 2019.

3. Results

3.1. Weight Characterization

Figure 2 shows that, when compared to the samples preserved using various UV light spectra, the control (non-preserved sample) exhibited the highest weight loss (4.46%). It is also obvious that the full spectrum preservation approach produced the lowest weight. That is to say, compared to the other preservation systems, the full spectrum preservation system was more effective at preserving the fruits in terms of weight loss. A similar phenomenon can also be observed in Figure 2. It is also important to note that fruit and vegetable quality is greatly impacted by post-harvest water loss, which is a significant contributor to degradation. If the commodity is sold by weight, significant water loss could lead to a significant decrease in fresh weight, which would result in a financial loss. When the essential moisture loss threshold is achieved, more noticeable detrimental changes in turgidity, firmness, discoloration, flavor, and nutritional value might happen. Slight moisture loss can create subtle quality changes in color and texture. Weight loss has been linked to accelerated senescence, increased pathogen invasion, and greater vulnerability to chilling injury [39]. Generally, fruit spoiling and destruction during storage are typically brought on by microbial contamination of the food and oxidation brought on by active oxygen species (ROS). This deterioration and rotting during storage affect the food sector, the environment, and both. Using preservation technologies in fruits is crucial to the prevention of contamination and food deterioration [40].
It is noteworthy that tomatoes, one of the more fragile fruits, keep evolving even after being picked. Depending on the humidity and temperature, they ripen quickly, which ultimately leads to poor quality as the fruit grows soft and tastes awful [41]. Because an overripe tomato is more likely to incur bodily harm than a ripe or pink one, it must be harvested at the right moment. After being harvested, tomatoes continue to ripen, and they can soon become overripe. Tomatoes are climacteric fruits, and the ripening stage is when they breathe the most. Because tomatoes are a climacteric and perishable product, their shelf life is usually only 2 to 3 weeks [42]. The post-harvest (post-production) and marketing system is a collection of interconnected activities that take place between the time of the harvest and the delivery of the food to the customer. The outcomes of the weight loss monitoring in grams are summarized in Figure 3. From Figure 3 it can be seen that the control sample presented the highest weight loss compared to the preserved samples using the different techniques. UV-LED presented the lowest weight loss after 21 days of the monitoring process.
A tomato fruit’s fresh weight is 90% water, and the size of the fruit is influenced by the water supply to the plant. Due to the quantity of water, the fruit is perishable. The quality of most fruits and vegetables is also impacted by water loss during storage, which is affected by ambient temperature and relative humidity levels [43]. Fruits should be properly preserved for a short time, say 4 to 7 days, to prevent quality loss in order to reduce post-harvest losses and improve fruit quality and marketability [44]. Low soluble solid content, delayed fruit lycopene, and low acidity all contribute to maintaining the flesh’s firmness. Apart from the preservation techniques investigated in this study, the use of plastic film is becoming more and more significant among the different strategies developed to extend fruit post-harvest life since it is practical in a range of scenarios along the handling chain from producer to consumer [45].
ANOVA was employed in this study, as described earlier, to examine the significant degree of differences between the parameters under investigation. The ANOVA was applied to the full spectrum preservation system, red spectrum, UV-LED, and control datasets. The ANOVA results from the fruit weight monitoring are summarized in Table S1. When the datasets were put through the ANOVA, a p-value of 1.02 × 10−6 was found, as can be shown. Given that the obtained p-value was less than 0.05 (alpha value), it may be concluded that the differences between the examined parameters′ effects on the datasets were statistically significant. By employing statistical testing, a statistically significant difference reveals if the datasets of one group are significantly different from the datasets of another group.
To further explore the significance levels in the differences from the researched parameters, the study additionally used Tukey′s honest significance test in addition to the ANOVA. Tukey’s honest significance test also used the datasets from the full spectrum preservation system, red spectrum, UV-LED, and control. Table 3 shows that a p-value of 0.001005 was obtained when the full spectrum fruit weight data were compared to the red spectrum results. The obtained p-value was less than 0.01 (alpha value) and indicated that the differences were statistically significant. A similar phenomenon can be observed when full spectrum results were compared with UV-LED results, full-spectrum results vs. control, as well as when the red spectrum results were compared with the control results. However, p-values larger than 0.01 were found when the UV-LED findings were compared to the red spectrum results, and when the UV-LED results were compared to the control data, rendering the differences statistically insignificant.

3.2. Fruit Size Characterization

Figure 4 and Table 4 reveal that the control sample experienced the greatest reduction in tomato size over time. However, across all of the examined preservation techniques, the size variations were often very small. Another important aspect to note is that, after being harvested, tomatoes begin to lose quality because they are a perishable food. When shipping tomatoes across long distances, it is crucial to choose the finest fruit sizes in order to preserve their quality. The size of the tomato, which can affect the nutritional content, is a key element in consumer decision-making. The sizes of fruits and vegetables serve as a crucial gauge for a number of characteristics. The highest quality food is packaged and marketed both domestically and internationally, while smaller fruit is frequently shifted to local markets or processing facilities. The size of tomatoes can vary depending on a variety of circumstances. The first effect of low ambient light is smaller tomatoes with less vitamin C content. Second, too much salt and/or chloride (caused by salinity) can cause fruit to become smaller and/or heavier while also containing more soluble particles. Finally, it has been demonstrated that fruit size may decrease in response to water stress, which may have an impact on the amount of soluble solids, acidity, and ascorbic acid present in the fruit. Fruit size may be influenced by cultivar, salinity, and mineral imbalances. It is possible for small fruit to be lighter, less firm, have a shorter shelf life, and have less marketability. The market value of tomatoes decreases as a result of all of these factors. Fruit size may also be affected by nutritional and organoleptic characteristics. Low light levels or salinity can change the intrinsic fruit composition, making this effect troublesome. Polygenic quantitative inheritance accounts for variation in fruit size and form. Segregation of offspring from cultivated species and crosses with wild relatives can result in a small fruit size, which is regulated by genetic locus mutations. By characterizing and identifying the gene mutations that can arise in grown fruit, one can use Mendelian techniques to prevent the variation of the quantitative nature of fruit size. During storage, fruit microbe activity often rises [46].
Table S2 provides a summary of the ANOVA results from fruit size monitoring. It can be seen that a p-value of 1.44 × 10−5 was retrieved when the datasets were subjected to the ANOVA. The computed p-value was less than 0.05 (alpha value) indicating that the differences in the datasets from the investigated parameters were statistically significant. In other words, a statistically significant difference was seen between the datasets when comparing the fruit size findings from the full spectrum preservation system, red spectrum, UV-LED, and control.
Table 5 shows that a p-value less than 0.01 was obtained when the full spectrum fruit size data were compared to the red spectrum results. Moreover, when the full spectrum results were compared against the control results a p-value higher than 0.01 was retrieved, making the difference statistically significant. A similar phenomenon can be seen from the comparison between red spectrum vs. UV-LED as well as red spectrum vs. control results. The obtained p-values were less than 0.01 and indicated that the differences were statistically significant. A similar phenomenon was observed when full spectrum results were compared with UV-LED results, full-spectrum results vs. control, as well as when the red spectrum results were compared with the control results. However, a p-value larger than 0.01 was found when the full spectrum findings were compared to the UV-LED results, rendering the differences statistically insignificant.

3.3. Ascorbic Acid

According to Figure 5, the control sample had the lowest ascorbic acid level after 21 days. The phenomenon underlines once more how important it is to preserve fruits using practical techniques. To be more specific, the ascorbic acid concentration in the red spectrum was discovered to be significantly greater after 21 days than in the other two spectra and control samples, measuring at roughly 1.8 mg/100 mL as opposed to 1.0 mg/100 mL for the control samples. Ascorbic acid is mostly found in fruit juices, which have seen rapid increases in consumption in recent years. However, ascorbic acid in fruit juices is easily oxidized and lost while the juices are in storage at rates that depend on the storage circumstances. It follows that the content and rate of loss after remaining determine the quality of any fruit juice and its worth as a source of vitamin C. Increasing ascorbate content has not been a major breeding priority, despite the fact that fruits and vegetables are the principal sources of ascorbate in the human diet and that there is significant inter- and intraspecific variation in ascorbate content in fruit crops [47]. Ascorbate content is being increased more and more these days, not just to enhance fruit quality but also to produce crops that can withstand more stress [48]. Several initiatives to enhance ascorbate in fruits have had some success, but occasionally negative effects on fruit growth have also appeared. This is probably because of the interplay between ascorbate production and elements of the cell wall [49].
ANOVA findings from the fruit size monitoring are summarized in Table S3. It is evident that an ANOVA analysis of the datasets yielded a p-value of 0.097458. Given that the obtained p-value was greater than 0.05 (alpha value), the differences between the datasets based on the studied parameters were statistically insignificant.
However, when the ascorbic acid monitoring results from the full spectrum vs. red spectrum, full spectrum vs. UV-LED, full spectrum vs. control red spectrum vs. UV-LED, red spectrum vs. control as well as UV-LED vs. control results were subjected to the Tukey’s honest significance test, p-values higher than 0.01 were retrieved, making the differences statistically insignificant (Table 6).

3.4. Lycopene

Additionally, it was noted in the study that the full spectra were somewhat observed to preserve the samples’ lycopene concentrations with time (Figure 6). The fact that the lycopene concentration of fruit keeps increasing as the fruit ripens is related to the overall increase in lycopene content. It should be mentioned that lycopene is an antioxidant-rich plant nutrient; it is the pigment responsible for the distinctive colors in fruits. Lycopene has been associated with health advantages ranging from heart health to defense against skin cancer and sunburn. In red, pink, and orange fruit and vegetables such as tomatoes and cranberries, lycopene, a lipophilic carotenoid hydrocarbon pigment, can be found. A food-grade source of carotenoid may be obtained via lycopene extraction [50].
According to [51], about 23 mg of lycopene are present in one cup (240 mL) of tomato juice. The natural lycopene in raw tomatoes is changed into a form that is more readily absorbed by the body when they are heated during processing (such as when preparing tomato juice, tomato paste, or ketchup). Lycopene supplements are used to prevent cardiovascular disease as well as cancers of the pancreatic, prostate, breast, lung, bladder, and ovaries. Because of their outstanding antioxidant capabilities, lycopene and lycopene supplements can reduce the risk of coronary artery disease [52].
Table S4 summarizes the lycopene monitoring ANOVA results, whereby the ANOVA produced a p-value of 0.925602. The discrepancies between the datasets based on the investigated parameters were statistically insignificant because the obtained p-value was more than 0.05 (alpha value).
Similarly, when the lycopene monitoring results from full spectrum vs. red spectrum, full spectrum vs. UV-LED, full spectrum vs. control red spectrum vs. UV-LED, red spectrum vs. control as well as UV-LED vs. control results were subjected to the Tukey’s honest significance test, p-values higher than 0.01 were retrieved, making the differences statistically insignificant (Table 7).

3.5. Total Soluble Solids

The full spectra were also observed to be highly effective in terms of preserving total soluble solids in samples (Figure 7), with the lowest TSS concentration observed from the control sample. To be more precise, after 21 days of preservation, the total soluble solids concentration was 3.9 °Brix in the control samples and around 7.3 °Brix in the full spectrum-preserved samples. Total soluble solids are a crucial indicator of fruit quality. TSS gives the liquid soluble solids content [53]. Because it might reveal the fruit’s level of sweetness, the TSS value has an impact on the flavor of the fruit. The typical method for determining a fruit’s TSS concentration is to measure its Brix level [54]. However, one drawback of utilizing Brix as a maturity indicator is that, in the case of climacteric fruits, TSS upon harvest is not a reliable predictor of TSS after a lengthy period of storage. It is substantially more accurate to predict TSS after storage based on dry matter content at harvest. Dry matter is entirely composed of solids, including soluble sugars and insoluble starches. Therefore, the starch that would eventually transform into sugar is taken into account, making the dry matter a good indication of flavor in all fruits. The fruit’s carbohydrates, organic acids, proteins, lipids, and minerals are all measured by the TSS, or sugar content. It makes up a significant amount of the fruit’s fresh weight and grows as the fruit ripens to produce a sweeter, less acidic fruit. A desirable balance of TSS and fruit acidity must be produced by the farmer.
The findings of the ANOVA monitoring of the total soluble solids are summarized in Table S5, with a p-value of 0.056578. Because the obtained p-value was greater than 0.05, the differences between the datasets based on the studied parameters were statistically insignificant (alpha value).
In the same way, p-values higher than 0.01 were obtained when the monitoring results of the total soluble solids from the full spectrum vs. red spectrum, full spectrum vs. UV-LED, full spectrum vs. control, red spectrum vs. UV-LED, as well as UV-LED vs. control results, were subjected to the Tukey’s honest significance test making the differences statistically insignificant (Table 8).

3.6. pH Monitoring Results

Figure 8 presents the summary of the pH results from the study. Along with sugars and flavor volatiles, acidity plays a significant role in determining the flavor and quality of most fruits. However, the molecular genetic control of plant acid levels is still poorly understood. The majority of eatable fruits have acidic pH values between 3–5. Even in major fruit crops such as grape, citrus, tomato, peach, and apple, which have drawn significant attention in genomic, biochemical, and physiological research, the genes responsible have not yet been definitively identified. Genetic variation for fruit acidity has been identified in many fruit crops but the genes responsible have yet to be definitively identified [55].
Table S6 provides a summary of the pH monitoring ANOVA results with a p-value of 0.284881. The discrepancies between the datasets based on the investigated parameters were statistically insignificant because the obtained p-value was more than 0.05 (alpha value).
Furthermore, the differences were found to be statistically insignificant when the pH monitoring results from full spectrum vs. red spectrum, full spectrum vs. UV-LED, full spectrum vs. control, red spectrum vs. UV-LED, and UV-LED vs. control results were subjected to Tukey’s honest significance test (Table 9).

3.7. Moisture Content Monitoring Results

The findings from the moisture content investigations based on the samples preserved using various preservation techniques are summarized in Figure 9. When compared to the other preservation systems studied in the study, the full spectrum preservation method was typically quite effective in preserving the moisture content in the samples, as seen by the control sample’s lowest moisture content. Approximately 66.2% of the moisture content from the 14-day samples and 59.2% of the moisture content from the 21-day samples were both obtained from the full spectrum system. Furthermore, the control sample had roughly 50.4% of moisture content from the 14-day samples and roughly 32.3% from the 21-day samples.

3.8. Correlation Analysis

The degree of change in one variable as a result of the other’s change was determined using correlation analysis. You can infer that the other variable or metric is also being impacted in a similar way if there is evidence of a high connection between the two and one of them is acting in a certain way. A common thread, or an underlying cause of events that, on the surface, may appear unrelated and unexplained, can be found through relating unrelated events and patterns. A high correlation indicates a significant link between the two measurements, whereas a low correlation indicates a poor association between the two metrics. A positive correlation indicates that both measurements grow in tandem, whereas a negative correlation indicates that as one metric grows, the other one shrinks. Table 10 demonstrates that there was a very strong positive correlation between tomato sample size and weight, with a correlation coefficient of 0.998498. With a correlation coefficient of 0.947123, it was also possible to discern a very strong positive correlation between lycopene and TSS (Table 10).

4. Discussion

Based on various criteria for fruit quality, the potential utility of various UV light spectra for the preservation of tomatoes was examined. The tomato was an ideal fruit for this study because it is one of the most perishable types of fruit and is widely consumed worldwide. It ripens quickly depending on the humidity and temperature, which finally led to poor quality as the fruit turned soft and unpalatable. It must therefore be harvested at the proper time because an overripe tomato is more vulnerable to physical harm than a ripe or pink one. After harvest, ripening continues, and tomatoes can quickly become overripe. Because tomatoes are climacteric fruits, their respiratory activity peaks as they ripen. Tomatoes have an extremely short shelf life because they are a climacteric and perishable produce, often within 2 to 3 weeks [56]. The control sample, which was not preserved, showed the greatest weight loss (4.46%) when compared to the samples that were preserved using various UV radiation spectra. It is also evident that the full spectrum had the lowest weight loss. The full spectrum preservation system was more effective at preserving the fruits in terms of weight loss than the other preservation methods. It is also evident that the full spectrum had the lowest weight loss. In other words, the full spectrum preservation approach was more effective in preserving the fruits in terms of weight loss than the other preservation methods. UV-C is increasingly being used as an alternative to post-harvest sanitation of both fruits and vegetables. According to research, sanitizing our fruit and vegetables with UV light can prevent the growth of microorganisms without degrading the quality of the produce. Compared to regularly used chemicals such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, or ozone, which can leave residues and eventually lower quality, UV radiation has the potential to be more successful at reducing microbial growth [57].
Moreover, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [58], the majority of tomato fruit is water, and once it is harvested, it can no longer replenish the water lost. High temperatures and low relative humidity cause water to evaporate, reducing the amount of marketable weight. An ANOVA analysis of the weight monitoring datasets revealed a p-value of 1.02 × 10−6. It can be stated that the differences between the analyzed parameters’ impacts on the datasets were statistically significant because the resulting p-value is less than 0.05 (alpha value). It is also significant to point out that ANOVA is a commonly used method for univariate data and is a fundamental tool in many research domains [59]. It establishes and quantifies the influence of various experimental parameters on the observable experiment result. The first step in an ANOVA is to estimate these effects for each factor and any potential interactions. The significance of these effects is inferred as the second step in an ANOVA. The well-known F-test is employed under the presumption that the measurements are normally distributed with equal variance under the various experimental settings [60].
The control sample, according to the results, had the highest reduction in tomato size over time. The size changes were, however, frequently extremely slight when compared to all of the tested preservation techniques. As was previously mentioned, tomato fruits are primarily made up of water, and once picked, they are unable to replenish the water lost. Low relative humidity and high temperatures cause water to evaporate, reducing the amount of marketable weight. Shriveling also results from the fruit losing water.
The control sample, according to the results, had the lowest ascorbic acid level after 21 days. The phenomenon highlights once more how critical it is to use sensible methods to preserve tomatoes. Tomato juices for instance, which have seen sharp increases in consumption in recent years, are the main source of ascorbic acid. However, ascorbic acid in fruit juices is easily oxidized and lost while the juices are in storage, at rates that depend on the storage circumstances. It follows that the content and rate of loss after remaining determine the quality of any fruit juice and its worth as a source of vitamin C. However, in general, it is anticipated that the ascorbic acid in tomatoes would start to decline over time. For instance, in the study of Yahia et al. [60], ascorbic acid in tomato fruit was found to gradually grow, peaking at 94.9 mg/100 g after 74 days, before slowly declining. As evidenced by a color change, the ascorbic acid level dropped at the same time that ripening began, and ascorbate oxidase activity increased.
The study also found that the lycopene concentrations in the samples were highly preserved over time by the full spectra. However, it was generally shown that the lycopene levels in the samples under study were rising over time. The overall increase in lycopene content is a phenomenon that is related to the fact that the fruit’s lycopene concentration keeps rising as the fruit ripens. Lycopene, the principal chemical responsible for the vivid red hue of ripe tomatoes and tomato-based products, is most commonly found in tomatoes. Watermelon, pink grapefruit, apricots, pink guava, and papaya are other foods from plants that contain lycopene, although tomato-based foods like ketchup, tomato paste, pizza sauce, spaghetti sauce, and tomato soup continue to be the main sources. Lycopene has largely been studied in vitro and in animal models to demonstrate its possible health benefits, including a decreased risk of malignancies of the prostate, breast, lung, and digestive tract [61]. Moreover, in the literature, a potential correlation between lycopene and tomato firmness has been reported. For instance, in the study conducted by Buccheri and Cantwell on fruit ripening conditions affecting the quality of sliced red tomatoes, it was observed that tomatoes ripened at a lower temperature (15 °C) had higher fruit firmness, while tomatoes kept at 25 °C had a lower lycopene content and lower firmness [62].
Additionally, the p-value for the ANOVA using lycopene findings obtained using various preservation techniques was 0.925602. The findings show that because the obtained p-value was greater than 0.05, the differences between the datasets based on the analyzed parameters were statistically insignificant (alpha value). When the lycopene monitoring results from full spectrum vs. red spectrum, full spectrum vs. UV-LED, full spectrum vs. control, red spectrum vs. UV-LED, red spectrum vs. control, as well as UV-LED vs. control were subjected to the Tukey’s honest significance test, p-values higher than 0.01 were retrieved, making the differences statistically insignificant.
As already mentioned, it was shown that the full spectrum was also quite successful at keeping total soluble solids in the tomato samples. with the control sample having the lowest TSS concentration found. The typical method for determining a fruit’s TSS concentration is to measure its Brix level. The fruit’s carbohydrates, organic acids, proteins, lipids, and minerals are all measured by the TSS, or sugar content. It makes up between 10 and 20 percent of the fruit’s fresh weight and grows as the fruit ripens to produce a sweeter, less acidic fruit. It is crucial that the producer makes an effort to establish a TSS and fruit acidity balance that is deemed acceptable.
With a correlation coefficient of 0.998498, the findings showed that there was a very high positive association between tomato sample size and weight. The findings also reveal a very strong positive link between lycopene and TSS, with a correlation coefficient of 0.947123. Other parameters, including pH versus lycopene and pH versus TSS, were also shown to be substantially correlated, with correlation coefficients of 0.871942 and 0.743132, respectively. Similarly, lycopene was shown to be positively correlated with TSS in the study by Panthee et al. [63] on the degree of genotype and environment interactions on tomato fruit quality. Total soluble solids (TSS) and pH, lycopene content, and vitamin C were found to be positively and highly significantly correlated with TSS, while moisture content and titrable acidity had negatively and highly significantly correlated with TSS, according to a study by Shobo et al. [64], on correlation and path coefficient analysis for TSS in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) fruit. Fruit hardness, moisture content, titratable acidity, and lycopene content had a direct but detrimental effect on TSS, but vitamin C content and pH had beneficial and direct effects on TSS. The direct influence of vitamin C on TSS was greatest. The authors also came to the conclusion that screening tomato genotypes using a combination of these qualities as selection indices is advised for tomato fruits’ total soluble solids rather than focusing on any one trait with a direct effect on TSS in an effective selection for high TSS in tomato fruit. The pigments (such as chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins, etc.) that give fruits their color are significantly influenced by pH. Additionally, pH has a significant effect on water-holding capacity and softness, which may have an impact on the firmness of the fruit [65]. Furthermore, Jia et al. [66], looked at the pattern in changes in TSS along with fruit growth and ripening to see whether variations in TSS might be correlated to the changes in fruit water relationship. It was shown that increases in TSS were closely linked with changes in fruit hardness, indicating a close relationship with the start of fruit ripening.
Moreover, it should be noted that, when a tomato is damaged, biological processes such as respiration and ethylene production move very quickly, causing the fruit to quickly deteriorate. It is possible that the damage won’t be apparent during the green stage, but it might become apparent later on during the sale as compression and discoloration in the flesh. Insects and other creatures that cause decay can attack tomatoes, which could hasten the process of degradation. Handling anything roughly may result in wounds that act as entryways for organisms that cause deterioration. Additionally, wounds can cause water loss and hasten ripening [67]. Additionally, it is important to note that, when done correctly, UV therapy can be a competitive process when applied to meals, where the huge surface area for UV rays reaches the entire volume of the item. Food composition may change if UV treatment is administered incorrectly. Both free-radical and photochemical reactions can break down proteins, harm antioxidants, oxidize lipids, modify color and composition, and produce flavorings and odors that are not desired. Some vitamins are more vulnerable to UV radiation, and as a result, losses can even approach 50%. Vitamins C, B12, B6, B2, and folic acid are photosensitive water-soluble vitamins, whereas vitamins A, K, and E are photosensitive fat-soluble vitamins; carotene is the only provitamin with such qualities. On the other hand, due to the photosensitivity of fungal toxins, UV therapy can be a beneficial technique for general food safety [68].

5. Conclusions

As a result, compared to the control samples of tomatoes, tomato fruits exposed to three different spectra of LED lights displayed improved qualities in terms of lycopene content, ascorbic acid, firmness and size, fruit mass, total soluble solids, and moisture content. Even while the lycopene concentration in control samples was quite high for the first five days of storage, the increase in lycopene concentrations in samples was not as good as the ones from the preserved samples. The red spectrum preservation system, in contrast to full spectrum and UV-LED systems, was shown to significantly improve the lycopene concentrations, which was an intriguing phenomenon. The concentration of ascorbic acid in the full-spectrum samples was substantially higher than in the red spectrum and UV-LED samples. However, the concentrations of ascorbic acid in the samples were noticeably higher in the preserved samples compared to the control samples. Total soluble solids improved noticeably after preservation, particularly in samples exposed to UV-LED lights. Overall, the study’s findings demonstrated that tomato preservation utilizing the investigated technologies has a significant potential to enhance the status of the quality parameters in tomatoes. Moreover, the findings of this study offer a wealth of knowledge in the area of post-harvest preservation towards devising and developing highly efficient and effective preservation technologies.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://0-www-mdpi-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/article/10.3390/su15021111/s1, Table S1: ANOVA results from fruit weight monitoring; Table S2: ANOVA results from size monitoring results; Table S3: ANOVA results from ascorbic acid monitoring results; Table S4: ANOVA results from lycopene monitoring results; Table S5: ANOVA results from total soluble solids monitoring results; Table S6: ANOVA results from pH monitoring results.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.A. and K.M.; methodology, Z.A.; investigation, Z.A., T.M. and K.M.; data curation, T.M. and D.D.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.A. and T.M.; writing—review and editing, T.M. and Z.A.; formal analysis, Z.A. and T.M.; resources, A.K., S.Z. and R.U.; software, A.T.; validation, G.A. and D.D.; visualization, Z.A. and T.M.; supervision, K.M.; project administration, K.M.; funding acquisition, K.M. and Z.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan to support the grant AP14972696 “Innovation technology for long-term storage of fruits and vegetables” for 2022–2024 under “Zhas Galym” project for postdoctoral research.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Muchanga, R.A. Studies on Fresh-Market Tomato Production in a Plastic High Tunnel in Low-Input Alternative Systems Using Cover Crops and Livestock Compost. Ph.D. Thesis, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  2. Li, X.; Wang, Y.; Chen, S.; Tian, H.; Fu, D.; Zhu, B.; Luo, Y.; Zhu, H. Lycopene Is Enriched in Tomato Fruit by CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Multiplex Genome Editing. Front. Plant Sci. 2018, 9, 559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Sir Elkhatim, K.A.; Elagib, R.A.A.; Hassan, A.B. Content of Phenolic Compounds and Vitamin C and Antioxidant Activity in Wasted Parts of Sudanese Citrus Fruits. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018, 6, 1214–1219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Bvenura, C.; Sivakumar, D. The Role of Wild Fruits and Vegetables in Delivering a Balanced and Healthy Diet. Food Res. Int. 2017, 99, 15–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Mrabet, A.; Hammadi, H.; Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, G.; Jiménez-Araujo, A.; Sindic, M. Date Palm Fruits as a Potential Source of Functional Dietary Fiber: A Review. Food Sci. Technol. Res. 2019, 25, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Gallego Peláez, E.; Maldonado Celis, M.E.; Posada Jhonson, L.G.; Gómez García, A.C.; Torres Camargo, D. Consumption of Osmo-Dehydrated Andean Berry (Vaccinium Meridionale Swartz) Decreases Levels of pro-Inflammatory Biomarkers of Overweight and Obese Adults. Vitae 2021, 28, 343810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Mármol, I.; Quero, J.; Ibarz, R.; Ferreira-Santos, P.; Teixeira, J.A.; Rocha, C.M.R.; Pérez-Fernández, M.; García-Juiz, S.; Osada, J.; Martín-Belloso, O.; et al. Valorization of Agro-Food by-Products and Their Potential Therapeutic Applications. Food Bioprod. Process. 2021, 128, 247–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Afrin, S.; Giampieri, F.; Gasparrini, M.; Forbes-Hernandez, T.; Varela-López, A.; Quiles, J.; Mezzetti, B.; Battino, M. Chemopreventive and Therapeutic Effects of Edible Berries: A Focus on Colon Cancer Prevention and Treatment. Molecules 2016, 21, 169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Górecka, D.; Wawrzyniak, A.; Jȩdrusek-Golińska, A.; Dziedzic, K.; Hamułka, J.; Kowalczewski, P.Ł.; Walkowiak, J. Lycopene in Tomatoes and Tomato Products. Open Chem. 2020, 18, 752–756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Ramesh, K.; Paul, V.; Pandey, R. Dynamics of Mineral Nutrients in Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum L.) Fruits during Ripening: Part II—Off the Plant. Plant Physiol. Rep. 2021, 26, 284–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Bhatkar, N.S.; Shirkole, S.S.; Mujumdar, A.S.; Thorat, B.N. Drying of Tomatoes and Tomato Processing Waste: A Critical Review of the Quality Aspects. Dry. Technol. 2021, 39, 1720–1744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Parra-Terraza, S.; Angulo-Castro, A.; Sánchez-Peña, P.; Valdéz-Torres, J.B.; Rubio-Carrasco, W. Effect of Cl− and Na+ Ratios in Nutrient Solutions on Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum L.) Yield in a Hydroponic System. Rev. Chapingo Ser. Hortic. 2022, 28, 67–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Lapointe, W.; Nguyen, H.T. Emerging technologies and trends in postharvest products preservation and processing: A review. Sci. J. Tra Vinh Univ. 2019, 1, 77–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Thomas, P. Control of Post-Harvest Loss of Grain, Fruits and Vegetables by Radiation Processing. In Irradiation for Food Safety and Quality; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2020; pp. 93–102. [Google Scholar]
  15. de Salomão, B.C.M. Pathogens and Spoilage Microorganisms in Fruit Juice. In Fruit Juices; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; pp. 291–308. ISBN 9780128024911. [Google Scholar]
  16. Raybaudi-Massilia, R.M.; Mosqueda-Melgar, J.; Soliva-Fortuny, R.; Martín-Belloso, O. Control of Pathogenic and Spoilage Microorganisms in Fresh-Cut Fruits and Fruit Juices by Traditional and Alternative Natural Antimicrobials. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2009, 8, 157–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Brkić Bubola, K.; Lukić, M.; Novoselić, A.; Krapac, M.; Lukić, I. Olive Fruit Refrigeration during Prolonged Storage Preserves the Quality of Virgin Olive Oil Extracted Therefrom. Foods 2020, 9, 1445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Nkechi Juliet Tamuno, E. Effect of Packaging Materials, Storage Conditions on the Vitamin C and PH Value of Cashew Apple (Anacardium Occidentale L.) Juice. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2015, 3, 160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Finardi, S.; Hoffmann, T.G.; Schmitz, F.R.W.; Bertoli, S.L.; Khayrullin, M.; Neverova, O.; Ponomarev, E.; Goncharov, A.; Kulmakova, N.; Dotsenko, E.; et al. Comprehensive Study of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Ultraviolet-LED Lights Application in Food Quality and Safety. J. Pure Appl. Microbiol. 2021, 15, 1125–1135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Kim, M.-J.; Tang, C.H.; Bang, W.S.; Yuk, H.-G. Antibacterial Effect of 405 ± 5 Nm Light Emitting Diode Illumination against Escherichia Coli O157:H7, Listeria Monocytogenes, and Salmonella on the Surface of Fresh-Cut Mango and Its Influence on Fruit Quality. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2017, 244, 82–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  21. Zhang, X.; Zhang, M.; Xu, B.; Mujumdar, A.S.; Guo, Z. Light-emitting Diodes (below 700 Nm): Improving the Preservation of Fresh Foods during Postharvest Handling, Storage, and Transportation. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2022, 21, 106–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Kim, N.Y.; Lee, D.S.; An, D.S. Quality Preservation of Shredded Carrots Stored in UV LED Packaging System. J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014, 43, 135–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Paponov, M.; Kechasov, D.; Lacek, J.; Verheul, M.J.; Paponov, I.A. Supplemental Light-Emitting Diode Inter-Lighting Increases Tomato Fruit Growth Through Enhanced Photosynthetic Light Use Efficiency and Modulated Root Activity. Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 10, 1656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Huang, J.-Y.; Xu, F.; Zhou, W. Effect of LED Irradiation on the Ripening and Nutritional Quality of Postharvest Banana Fruit. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2018, 98, 5486–5493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Dhakal, R.; Baek, K.-H. Short Period Irradiation of Single Blue Wavelength Light Extends the Storage Period of Mature Green Tomatoes. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2014, 90, 73–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Bekele, F.; Shumbej, T.; Dendir, A.; Mesfin, D.; Solomon, A. Contamination Rate of Commonly Consumed Fresh Vegetables and Fruits with Parasites of Medically Importance in Wolkite and Butajira Towns of Gurage Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Int. J. Public Health Sci. 2020, 9, 211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Pal, M.; Ayele, Y.; Kundu, P.; Jadhav, V.J. Growing Importance of Listeriosis as Food Borne Disease. J. Exp. Food Chem. 2017, 3, 133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Lee, J.Y.; Yang, S.Y.; Yoon, K.S. Control Measures of Pathogenic Microorganisms and Shelf-Life Extension of Fresh-Cut Vegetables. Foods 2021, 10, 655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Graça, A.; Santo, D.; Quintas, C.; Nunes, C. Growth of Escherichia Coli, Salmonella Enterica and Listeria Spp., and Their Inactivation Using Ultraviolet Energy and Electrolyzed Water, on ‘Rocha’ Fresh-Cut Pears. Food Control 2017, 77, 41–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Miranda, K.M.; Espey, M.G.; Wink, D.A. A Rapid, Simple Spectrophotometric Method for Simultaneous Detection of Nitrate and Nitrite. Nitric Oxide 2001, 5, 62–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Waiman, C.V.; Avena, M.J.; Garrido, M.; Fernández Band, B.; Zanini, G.P. A Simple and Rapid Spectrophotometric Method to Quantify the Herbicide Glyphosate in Aqueous Media. Application to Adsorption Isotherms on Soils and Goethite. Geoderma 2012, 170, 154–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Rattanapoltaveechai, R.; Vongkom, W.; Suntornsuk, W.; Suntornsuk, L. Simple and Rapid Spectrophotometric Method for the Analysis of Erythromycin in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms. J. Food Drug Anal. 2020, 15, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Thipwimonmas, Y.; Jaidam, J.; Samoson, K.; Khunseeraksa, V.; Phonchai, A.; Thiangchanya, A.; Chang, K.H.; Abdullah, A.F.L.; Limbut, W. A Simple and Rapid Spectrophotometric Method for Nitrite Detection in Small Sample Volumes. Chemosensors 2021, 9, 161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Fadupin, G.T.; Osadola, O.T.; Atinmo, T. Lycopene Content of Selected Tomato Based Products, Fruits and Vegetables Consumed in South Western Nigeria. Afr. J. Biomed. Res. 2012, 15, 187–191. [Google Scholar]
  35. Fish, W.W.; Perkins-Veazie, P.; Collins, J.K. A Quantitative Assay for Lycopene That Utilizes Reduced Volumes of Organic Solvents. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2002, 15, 309–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Degwale, A.; Asrat, F.; Eniyew, K.; Asres, D.; Tesfa, T.; Ayalew, A. Influence of Dehydration Temperature and Time on Physicochemical Properties of Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum L.) Powder. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2022, 6, 839385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Meiramkulova, K.; Devrishov, D.; Kakabayev, A.; Marzanov, N.; Kurmanbayeva, A.; Adilbektegi, G.; Marzanova, S.; Kydyrbekova, A.; Mkilima, T. Investigating the Influence of Fly Attractant on Food Waste Recovery through Fly Larvae Production. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Mkilima, T.; Bazarbayeva, T.; Assel, K.; Nurkenovna, N.N.; Bolatovna, O.I.; Sultanseitovna, K.A.; Saule, M.; Samal, S. Pore Size in the Removal of Phosphorus and Nitrogen from Poultry Slaughterhouse Wastewater Using Polymeric Nanofiltration Membranes. Water 2022, 14, 2929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. do Nunes, M.C.N. Correlations between Subjective Quality and Physicochemical Attributes of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2015, 107, 43–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Hassanzadeh, M.K.; Tayarani Najaran, Z.; Nasery, M.; Emami, S.A. Summer Savory (Satureja Hortensis L.) Oils. In Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 757–764. [Google Scholar]
  41. Ge, J.; Zhao, L.; Gong, X.; Lai, Z.; Traore, S.; Li, Y.; Long, H.; Zhang, L. Combined Effects of Ventilation and Irrigation on Temperature, Humidity, Tomato Yield, and Quality in the Greenhouse. HortScience 2021, 56, 1080–1088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Tolasa, M.; Gedamu, F.; Woldetsadik, K. Impacts of Harvesting Stages and Pre-Storage Treatments on Shelf Life and Quality of Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum L.). Cogent Food Agric. 2021, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Berman, M.E.; Dejong, T.M. Water Stress and Crop Load Effects on Fruit Fresh and Dry Weights in Peach (Prunus Persica). Tree Physiol. 1996, 16, 859–864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Shirazi, A.; Cameron, A.C. Controlling Relative Humidity in Modified Atmosphere Packages of Tomato Fruit. HortScience 1992, 27, 336–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Sun, Y.; Huang, Y.; Wang, X.; Wu, Z.; Weng, Y. Kinetic Analysis of PGA/PBAT Plastic Films for Strawberry Fruit Preservation Quality and Enzyme Activity. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2022, 108, 104439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Zahirul Islam, M.; Lee, Y.-T.; Akter Mele, M.; Choi, I.-L.; Kang, H.-M. Effect of Fruit Size on Fruit Quality, Shelf Life and Microbial Activity in Cherry Tomatoes. AIMS Agric. Food 2019, 4, 340–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Fenech, M.; Amaya, I.; Valpuesta, V.; Botella, M.A. Vitamin C Content in Fruits: Biosynthesis and Regulation. Front. Plant Sci. 2019, 9, 2006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  48. Mesa, T.; Polo, J.; Arabia, A.; Caselles, V.; Munné-Bosch, S. Differential Physiological Response to Heat and Cold Stress of Tomato Plants and Its Implication on Fruit Quality. J. Plant Physiol. 2022, 268, 153581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Rehman, M.A.; Asi, M.R.; Hameed, A.; Bourquin, L.D. Effect of Postharvest Application of Aloe Vera Gel on Shelf Life, Activities of Anti-Oxidative Enzymes, and Quality of ‘Gola’ Guava Fruit. Foods 2020, 9, 1361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Khan, U.M.; Sevindik, M.; Zarrabi, A.; Nami, M.; Ozdemir, B.; Kaplan, D.N.; Selamoglu, Z.; Hasan, M.; Kumar, M.; Alshehri, M.M.; et al. Lycopene: Food Sources, Biological Activities, and Human Health Benefits. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2021, 2021, 2713511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Dasgupta, A.; Klein, K. Herbal and Other Dietary Supplements That Are Antioxidants. In Antioxidants in Food, Vitamins and Supplements; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014; pp. 295–315. [Google Scholar]
  52. Przybylska, S. Lycopene—A Bioactive Carotenoid Offering Multiple Health Benefits: A Review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 55, 11–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Li, J.-L.; Sun, D.-W.; Cheng, J.-H. Recent Advances in Nondestructive Analytical Techniques for Determining the Total Soluble Solids in Fruits: A Review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2016, 15, 897–911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Wazed, M.A.; Das Gupta, M.; Dey, S.K.; Majumder, R.K.; Amina, A.; Shakib, S.R. Preparation and Quality Evaluation of Carbonated Guava Fruit Drinks Produced from BARI Payera-4. Malays. J. Halal Res. 2021, 4, 55–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Cohen, S.; Itkin, M.; Yeselson, Y.; Tzuri, G.; Portnoy, V.; Harel-Baja, R.; Lev, S.; Sa‘ar, U.; Davidovitz-Rikanati, R.; Baranes, N.; et al. The PH Gene Determines Fruit Acidity and Contributes to the Evolution of Sweet Melons. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 4026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  56. Ashenafi, H.; Tura, S. Shelf Life and Quality of Tomato (Lycopersicon Esculentum Mill.) Fruits as Affected by Different Packaging Materials. Afr. J. Food Sci. 2018, 12, 21–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Zhang, W.; Jiang, W. UV Treatment Improved the Quality of Postharvest Fruits and Vegetables by Inducing Resistance. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 92, 71–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Esguerra, E.; Rolle, R.; Rapusas, R. Postharvest Management of Tomato for Quality and Safety Assurance; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2018; pp. 1–16. Available online: https://www.fao.org/3/I8236EN/i8236en.pdf (accessed on 12 May 2022).
  59. King, B.M. Analysis of Variance. In International Encyclopedia of Education; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2010; pp. 32–36. [Google Scholar]
  60. Yahia, E.M.; Contreras-Padilla, M.; Gonzalez-Aguilar, G. Ascorbic Acid Content in Relation to Ascorbic Acid Oxidase Activity and Polyamine Content in Tomato and Bell Pepper Fruits During Development, Maturation and Senescence. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2001, 34, 452–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  61. Aluko, R.E. Plant-Derived Bioactives. In Comprehensive Biotechnology; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2011; pp. 532–545. [Google Scholar]
  62. Buccheri, M.; Cantwell, M.I. Fruit Ripening Conditions Affect the Quality of Sliced Red Tomatoes. Acta Hortic. 2016, 159–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Panthee, D.R.; Cao, C.; Debenport, S.J.; Rodríguez, G.R.; Labate, J.A.; Robertson, L.D.; Breksa, A.P.; van der Knaap, E.; McSpadden Gardener, B.B. Magnitude of Genotype × Environment Interactions Affecting Tomato Fruit Quality. HortScience 2012, 47, 721–726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  64. Shobo, B.; Oduntan, A.; Adediran, O.; Bodunde, G.; Ogunleye, M. Correlation and Path Coefficient Analysis for Total Soluble Solids in Tomato (Lycopersicon Esculentum Mill) Fruit. Niger. J. Hortic. Sci. 2020, 25, 14. Available online: https://www.ajol.info/index.php/njhs/article/view/204538 (accessed on 24 December 2022).
  65. Andrés-Bello, A.; Barreto-Palacios, V.; García-Segovia, P.; Mir-Bel, J.; Martínez-Monzó, J. Effect of PH on Color and Texture of Food Products. Food Eng. Rev. 2013, 5, 158–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Jia, K.; Zhang, Q.; Xing, Y.; Yan, J.; Liu, L.; Nie, K. A Development-Associated Decrease in Osmotic Potential Contributes to Fruit Ripening Initiation in Strawberry (Fragaria Ananassa). Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 11, 1035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Lu, L.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, H.; Sun, D.; Li, Z.; Guo, Q.; Wang, C.; Qiao, L. Oligogalacturonide-Accelerated Healing of Mechanical Wounding in Tomato Fruit Requires Calcium-Dependent Systemic Acquired Resistance. Food Chem. 2021, 337, 127992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Csapó, J.; Prokisch, J.; Albert, C.; Sipos, P. Effect of UV Light on Food Quality and Safety. Acta Univ. Sapientiae Aliment. 2019, 12, 21–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 15 01111 g001 550
Figure 1. The general architecture of the preservation system.
Figure 1. The general architecture of the preservation system.
Sustainability 15 01111 g001
Sustainability 15 01111 g002 550
Figure 2. Fruits weight monitoring results. (a) Weight in grams. (b) Weight loss in percentage.
Figure 2. Fruits weight monitoring results. (a) Weight in grams. (b) Weight loss in percentage.
Sustainability 15 01111 g002
Sustainability 15 01111 g003 550
Figure 3. Weight loss monitoring results.
Figure 3. Weight loss monitoring results.
Sustainability 15 01111 g003
Sustainability 15 01111 g004 550
Figure 4. Fruit size monitoring results.
Figure 4. Fruit size monitoring results.
Sustainability 15 01111 g004
Sustainability 15 01111 g005 550
Figure 5. Ascorbic acid monitoring results.
Figure 5. Ascorbic acid monitoring results.
Sustainability 15 01111 g005
Sustainability 15 01111 g006 550
Figure 6. Lycopene monitoring results.
Figure 6. Lycopene monitoring results.
Sustainability 15 01111 g006
Sustainability 15 01111 g007 550
Figure 7. Total soluble solids.
Figure 7. Total soluble solids.
Sustainability 15 01111 g007
Sustainability 15 01111 g008 550
Figure 8. pH monitoring results.
Figure 8. pH monitoring results.
Sustainability 15 01111 g008
Sustainability 15 01111 g009 550
Figure 9. Moisture content monitoring results (a) day 14 (b) day 15.
Figure 9. Moisture content monitoring results (a) day 14 (b) day 15.
Sustainability 15 01111 g009
Table
Table 1. Cases investigated in the study (dependent and independent variables).
Table 1. Cases investigated in the study (dependent and independent variables).
Exposure TimeImpact on Tomato
Day 7Observed changes in terms of ascorbic acid, lycopene, total soluble solids, fruit mass, firmness and size, and moisture content.
Day 14Observed changes in terms of ascorbic acid, lycopene, total soluble solids, fruit mass, firmness and size, and moisture content.
Day 21Observed changes in terms of ascorbic acid, lycopene, total soluble solids, fruit mass, firmness and size, and moisture content.
Table
Table 2. Technical specifications of the full spectrum.
Table 2. Technical specifications of the full spectrum.
ParameterValue
Light distribution gradeDirect light
The light intensity distribution curveCosine
Radiating power10–100
Irradiance (mW/cm2)97.4–730.52
Photon flux efficiency1.7–2.1
Spectral structureFull spectrum
Table
Table 3. Tukey′s honest significance test results from weight results.
Table 3. Tukey′s honest significance test results from weight results.
Treatments PairTukey’s HSD Q StatisticTukey’s HSD p-ValueTukey’s HSD Inference
Full spectrum (FS) vs. red spectrum (RS)8.9920.001005** p < 0.01
Full spectrum (FS) vs. UV-LED11.62750.001005** p < 0.01
Full spectrum (FS) vs. Control15.50180.001005** p < 0.01
Red spectrum (RS) vs. UV-LED2.63540.293234insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. Control6.50970.002944** p < 0.01
UV-LED vs. Control3.87430.074133insignificant
Table
Table 4. Fruits size change monitoring results.
Table 4. Fruits size change monitoring results.
Light TypeSize Changes (cm)
D0–D21D7D14D21
Full spectrum (FS)6.800.050.05
Red spectrum (RS)0.050.0500
UV-LED0.100.050.05
Control1.20.50.50.2
Table
Table 5. Tukey’s honest significance test results from size monitoring results.
Table 5. Tukey’s honest significance test results from size monitoring results.
Treatments PairTukey’s HSD Q StatisticTukey’s HSD p-ValueTukey’s HSD Inference
Full spectrum (FS) vs. red spectrum (RS)6.26650.003938** p < 0.01
Full spectrum (FS) vs. UV-LED1.47450.711969insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. control6.17440.004398** p < 0.01
Red spectrum (RS) vs. UV-LED7.7410.001005** p < 0.01
Red spectrum (RS) vs. control12.44090.001005** p < 0.01
UV-LED vs. control4.69990.026979* p < 0.05
Table
Table 6. Tukey’s honest significance test results from ascorbic acid monitoring results.
Table 6. Tukey’s honest significance test results from ascorbic acid monitoring results.
Treatments PairTukey’s HSD Q StatisticTukey’s HSD p-ValueTukey’s HSD Inference
Full spectrum (FS) vs. red spectrum (RS)3.72830.088083insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. UV-LED1.60290.663574insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. control0.67260.899995insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. UV-LED2.12540.466654insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. control3.05560.189558insignificant
UV-LED vs. control0.93020.899995insignificant
Table
Table 7. Tukey’s honest significance test results from lycopene monitoring results.
Table 7. Tukey’s honest significance test results from lycopene monitoring results.
Treatments PairTukey’s HSD Q StatisticTukey’s HSD p-ValueTukey’s HSD Inference
Full spectrum (FS) vs. red spectrum (RS)0.88290.899995insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. UV-LED0.45540.899995insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. control0.75120.899995insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. UV-LED0.42750.899995insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. control0.13170.899995insignificant
UV-LED vs. control0.29580.899995insignificant
Table
Table 8. Tukey’s honest significance test results from total soluble solids monitoring results.
Table 8. Tukey’s honest significance test results from total soluble solids monitoring results.
Treatments PairTukey’s HSD Q StatisticTukey’s HSD p-ValueTukey’s HSD Inference
Full spectrum (FS) vs. red spectrum (RS)1.04220.874909insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. UV-LED3.56470.106839insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. control3.620.10012insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. UV-LED2.52250.327052insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. control2.57780.310183insignificant
UV-LED vs. control0.05530.899995insignificant
Table
Table 9. Tukey’s honest significance test results from pH monitoring results.
Table 9. Tukey’s honest significance test results from pH monitoring results.
Treatments PairTukey’s HSD Q StatisticTukey’s HSD p-ValueTukey’s HSD Inference
Full spectrum (FS) vs. red spectrum (RS)0.49970.899995insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. UV-LED1.42770.729618insignificant
Full spectrum (FS) vs. control2.71260.271535insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. UV-LED0.9280.899995insignificant
Red spectrum (RS) vs. control2.21290.434068insignificant
UV-LED vs. control1.28490.783428insignificant
Table
Table 10. Relationship among different parameters.
Table 10. Relationship among different parameters.
WeightSizeAscorbic AcidLycopeneTSSpH
Weight1
Size0.9984981
Ascorbic acid0.6329440.6592111
Lycopene−0.91723−0.89688−0.291621
TSS−0.99585−0.99124−0.55990.9471231
pH−0.71498−0.67612−0.178350.8719420.7431321
TSS = total soluble solids.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Meiramkulova, K.; Devrishov, D.; Adylbek, Z.; Kydyrbekova, A.; Zhangazin, S.; Ualiyeva, R.; Temirbekova, A.; Adilbektegi, G.; Mkilima, T. The Impact of Various LED Light Spectra on Tomato Preservation. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1111. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15021111

AMA Style

Meiramkulova K, Devrishov D, Adylbek Z, Kydyrbekova A, Zhangazin S, Ualiyeva R, Temirbekova A, Adilbektegi G, Mkilima T. The Impact of Various LED Light Spectra on Tomato Preservation. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1111. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15021111

Chicago/Turabian Style

Meiramkulova, Kulyash, Davud Devrishov, Zhanar Adylbek, Assel Kydyrbekova, Sayan Zhangazin, Rimma Ualiyeva, Aliya Temirbekova, Gulmira Adilbektegi, and Timoth Mkilima. 2023. "The Impact of Various LED Light Spectra on Tomato Preservation" Sustainability 15, no. 2: 1111. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15021111

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop