An Investigation of the Use of Microwaves and Airborne Ultrasound in the Convective Drying of Kale: Process Efficiency and Product Characteristics
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Drying Procedure
2.3. Drying Schemes—Central Composite Design (CCD)
2.4. Determination of the Diffusion Coefficient
2.5. Quality Assessment
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Drying Parameters and Specific Energy Consumption
3.2. Influence on Color
3.3. Influence of Drying on Bioactive Compounds
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Process | Order | Space Type | Power | Air Temperature (°C) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Microwaves (W) | Ultrasound (W) | |||||
Standard | Run | |||||
C_5 | 1 | 9 | Factorial | 0 | 0 | 50 |
CM_52 | 2 | 14 | Factorial | 200 | 0 | 50 |
CU_52 | 3 | 16 | Factorial | 0 | 200 | 50 |
CMU_522 | 4 | 5 | Factorial | 200 | 200 | 50 |
CU_51 | 5 | 11 | Axial | 0 | 100 | 50 |
CMU_521 | 6 | 12 | Axial | 200 | 100 | 50 |
CM_51 | 7 | 4 | Axial | 100 | 0 | 50 |
CMU_512 | 8 | 20 | Axial | 100 | 200 | 50 |
CMU_511 | 9 | 13 | Center | 100 | 100 | 50 |
CMU_511 | 10 | 6 | Center | 100 | 100 | 50 |
C_7 | 11 | 7 | Factorial | 0 | 0 | 70 |
CM_72 | 12 | 17 | Factorial | 200 | 0 | 70 |
CU_72 | 13 | 19 | Factorial | 0 | 200 | 70 |
CMU_722 | 14 | 8 | Factorial | 200 | 200 | 70 |
CU_71 | 15 | 18 | Axial | 0 | 100 | 70 |
CMU_721 | 16 | 2 | Axial | 200 | 100 | 70 |
CM_71 | 17 | 1 | Axial | 100 | 0 | 70 |
CMU_712 | 18 | 10 | Axial | 100 | 200 | 70 |
CMU_711 | 19 | 15 | Center | 100 | 100 | 70 |
CMU_711 | 20 | 3 | Center | 100 | 100 | 70 |
Independent Variable | Coded Variable | Type | Level | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
−1 | 0 | +1 | |||
Microwave power (W) | X1 | numerical | 0 | 100 | 200 |
Ultrasound power (W) | X2 | numerical | 0 | 100 | 200 |
Temperature (°C) | X3 | categorical | 50 | - | 70 |
Parameter | p-Value | Fit Statistics | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model | Lack of Fit | R2 | Adjusted R2 | Predicted R2 | |
DR | <0.0001 | 0.5014 | 0.9873 | 0.9839 | 0.9760 |
SEC | <0.0001 | 0.7527 | 0.9463 | 0.9319 | 0.9093 |
Deff | <0.0001 | 0.8906 | 0.9908 | 0.9875 | 0.9819 |
dE | <0.0001 | 0.3059 | 0.9249 | 0.8703 | 0.7910 |
Relative Change (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Process | AAR | TPR | TCR | ChAR | ChBR |
C_5 (Absolute values in mg/100g FW) | 35.41 ± 1.37 | 10.99 ± 0.56 | 7.57 ± 0.90 | 57.37 ± 4.11 | 28.20 ± 3.26 |
CM_51 | 6 | −17 | 55 | 25 | −1 |
CM_52 | 14 | −9 | 42 | 7 | −18 |
CU_51 | 14 | 1 | 20 | 1 | −26 |
CU_52 | 19 | −6 | 15 | 12 | −17 |
CMU_511 | 3 | −11 * | 18 | 23 | 6 * |
CMU_512 | 13 | −9 * | 20 | 24 | 9 * |
CMU_521 | 14 | −9 | 75 * | 8 | −21 * |
CMU_522 | 13 | −5 * | 88 * | 24 * | −6 * |
C_7 (Absolute values in mg/100g FW) | 37.60 ± 0.71 | 10.37 ± 0.20 | 10.68 ± 1.16 | 66.26 ± 2.00 | 30.76 ± 0.29 |
CM_71 | 3 | 3 | 61 | 25 | 2 |
CM_72 | 7 | 3 | 21 | 3 | −14 |
CU_71 | −10 | −4 | 52 | 24 | −1 |
CU_72 | −10 | −18 | 46 | 19 | −10 |
CMU_711 | 12 * | 14 * | 106 | 45 | 14 * |
CMU_712 | 6 * | 4 * | 100 | 45 * | 20 * |
CMU_721 | 10 * | 10 * | 107 * | 47 * | 21 * |
CMU_722 | 21 * | 13 * | 77 * | 33 * | 22 * |
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Mierzwa, D.; Szadzińska, J. An Investigation of the Use of Microwaves and Airborne Ultrasound in the Convective Drying of Kale: Process Efficiency and Product Characteristics. Sustainability 2023, 15, 16200. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su152316200
Mierzwa D, Szadzińska J. An Investigation of the Use of Microwaves and Airborne Ultrasound in the Convective Drying of Kale: Process Efficiency and Product Characteristics. Sustainability. 2023; 15(23):16200. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su152316200
Chicago/Turabian StyleMierzwa, Dominik, and Justyna Szadzińska. 2023. "An Investigation of the Use of Microwaves and Airborne Ultrasound in the Convective Drying of Kale: Process Efficiency and Product Characteristics" Sustainability 15, no. 23: 16200. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su152316200