Reciprocity and Social Capital for Sustainable Rural Development

Abstract

This study investigates the influence of human intellectual and social capital on the reciprocity (mutual exchange) between non-tourist populations and actors in the Kampung Coklat tourism of Plosorejo village, Indonesia. The existence of a sense of trust, mutual respect, and social networks between communities are important values in the dimension of social capital and form interchange between communities. The question in this research is whether interpersonal trust has a beneficial impact on relationship social capital and whether the existence of trust, social networks, and social norms has a beneficial impact on community reciprocity. The findings indicate that social capital is pivotal in advancing cocoa tourism, especially for individuals not directly involved in the tourism industry.

1. Introduction

Reciprocity is a fundamental universal human civilisational norm that influences the stability of social systems [1] and it is viewed as a strategic behaviour to achieve social cooperation [2]. People exchange goods and services in a reciprocal socioeconomic system out of a sense of social duty [3]. Reciprocity is therefore regarded as a “norm” that can promote a secure social structure by preventing potential exploitation among group members. Reciprocity is defined as a sense of mutual support shared by members of a social network or community [4], and it is an important factor in the development of social capital. According to the theory of reciprocity, acting reciprocally boosts both an individual’s and a society’s overall benefits. One of the advantages of demonstrating reciprocity is social capital [5].

The reciprocity, friendship, and trust that people develop with one another are examples of values found in personal relationships that make up the relational dimension of social capital [6]. Norms, social networks, and trust are the sources of this social capital [7]. Social capital is defined as the strength of society in working together to improve the quality of life and make positive changes [8]. Social capital is something that refers to social relationships, norms, and levels of trust. Social capital occurs because of interactions between individuals or groups, solidarity, and mutual trust which allows for collaboration between communities [9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. Social capital allows people to work together to achieve their goals [17,18,19,20,21]. Social organisation components like beliefs, norms, and social networks that can promote intercommunal cooperation are referred to as social capital. Strong community social capital must have existed before this joint community cooperation was possible. Although social capital can serve as a link between people, it is not always the driving force behind these connections [22]. Social capital has been compared to a lubricant that improves the effectiveness of a group or organisation [23].

Trust fosters positive social interaction [6] and self-disclosure among individuals [24]. Consequently, network participants can complete tasks requiring greater collaboration and complexity [25]. In several contexts, previous research has demonstrated a direct correlation between trust and the calibre of social capital [26]. Putnam [7] asserts that the practice of reciprocity between members of a community is crucial to the development of their social capital. Furthermore, reciprocity plays a significant role in physical and online communities [27].

As Coleman [28] points out, social capital results in three crucial outcomes. The first relates to responsibilities and expectations. He emphasised the significance of reciprocity in interpersonal social action. He also emphasised that the type of social capital depends on the degree of trust and faith in social networks. The second is that for actors to be perceived as acting in the social collectivity’s best interests, norms and sanctions are crucial for social collectivities. The latter defines information channels as a method for actors to obtain relationship-based information that will serve as the foundation for subsequent actions [28].

It is argued that strong social norms of reciprocity and social trust are fostered in high-social-capital communities and support positive outcomes in employment, socioeconomic status, and education [29]. Local connections made and services provided within civic groups are crucial in fostering civic capacity and confidence, which in turn is linked to favourable outcomes like improved educational outcomes and increased community security [30]. As a result, it is claimed that social capital and community success are positively correlated.

Given that the community and the government are heavily involved in sustainable development, Indonesia’s highly developed reciprocity makes the effect even more pronounced. It offers a useful context for this research. Because Indonesia has many tourist destinations incorporating local communities, this can foster interaction between the government and the community in growing tourist villages and in fostering social capital and reciprocal relationships. In understanding the impact of tourism development on the conservation of valuable local heritage, it is important to define basic tourism terms and concepts [31]. The sustainability of tourist destination development depends on the ability to regulate how much development is carried out so as not to disrupt the entire destination system. Although we want to maximise the benefits, too many visits can damage major tourist attractions such as cultural monuments or natural areas. In terms of business, too many tourists and their negative impacts can reduce the attractiveness of a destination and can even cause a loss of tourist interest. Therefore, it is important to find a balance so that destinations remain attractive and sustainable [32]. Kampung Coklat in Blitar Regency is one of the tourist destinations in Indonesia that involves the locals in its development.

Blitar Regency is one of the regencies in East Java with a relatively low land elevation [33]. Due to its abundance of tourism, Blitar has developed into a popular tourist destination. Kampung Coklat, situated in Plosorejo Village, is one of the most fascinating and well-known tourist destinations in Blitar. Plosorejo Village has been able to draw tourists since 2014 and has developed into a popular tourist destination for visitors to Blitar Regency. According to data from the 2021 Blitar Regency Central Bureau of Statistics, Kampung Coklat in Plosorejo Village drew 243,204 domestic visitors in the previous calendar year. The frequent visits of tourists to Kampung Coklat result in interactions between visitors and the local population, which affect the residents of Plosorejo Village. It can be said that Kampung Coklat tourism plays a significant part in the locals’ economy. A favourable relationship between the economy and people’s attitudes results from tourism-related activities [34].

During the pandemic, Kampung Coklat’s tourism faced challenges that affected the industry, economy, society, and culture. By renovating it and introducing stringent health regulations, Kampung Coklat developed its tourism support facilities in 2020, after they were temporarily closed due to the spread of the virus, to address this issue. As a result, visitors can now comfortably engage in tourism-related activities. In the new normal, Kampung Coklat has reopened and is employing its workforce, which includes some members of the local community. The residents of Plosorejo Village have helped the Kampung Coklat grow by supporting it in various ways, including providing parking spaces, dan working there as employees. However, Kampung Coklat has been unable to meet market demand when it relies solely on its garden produce.

The advancement of Kampung Coklat is closely related to the neighbourhood’s active participation in welfare improvement initiatives. Kampung Coklat’s cooperation with the neighbourhood community can potentially build social capital. Positive community impact is produced by social integration and good community integration. Social integration is promoted through social networks and other public and private organisations. In addition to strengthening the reciprocity norms within the community, this mediating effect also increases social capital [35].

Considering the background information provided, this study aims to investigate the connection between social capital and community reciprocity in Kampung Coklat tourism to ascertain whether there is an influence from village community social capital on the reciprocal relationship (reciprocity) between the people of Plosorejo Village and Kampung Coklat; this study was conducted by analysing the social capital variable itself, as well as the relationship between the social capital variable and reciprocity. Research focused on a small area will be considered to have detailed knowledge as a first step to understanding a larger context. In other words, in-depth research on a small area compared to a superficial understanding of the whole will produce knowledge that is more relevant and widely applicable [36]. In this case, this research focuses on the people of Plosorejo Village. Although many studies have shown how various forms of social capital can be influenced by reciprocal behaviour, to close this gap, this study then investigates this relationship, especially in tourism villages, because of the small amount of research on this topic, especially regarding case studies in tourist villages.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Social Capital

Social capital is the ability of a society to organise roles (rules) that are expressed in personal relationships (personal relationships), trust (trust), and common sense in shared responsibility so that the community is not only a collection of individuals but is a unit that will make the community feel like they are a part of the same thing [37]. Social capital is a characteristic of social organisations, such as networks, norms, and beliefs that support action and cooperation for mutual benefit [38]. In addition, Putnam [39] added the definition of social capital, which is a component of social life (networks, norms, and beliefs) that motivates participants to work more effectively as a team to accomplish shared objectives [40,41]. Trust, Norms, and Social Networks are described concerning social capital in the following manner [42]:

• Trust, the most important collaboration component, can be firmly established.
• Norms, particularly reciprocal connections, help maintain the community’s balance.
• Social networks, which are both horizontal and vertical, are connected to cooperation. Building communication channels and spreading knowledge about trust among community members are two purposes of horizontal collaboration—contrary to vertical cooperation, which is unable to foster trust and cooperation. Consequently, the fusion of horizontal and vertical networks demonstrates the best form of cooperation.

The existence of recognised norms, established trust, and solid social networks creates a strong foundation for social capital. In this case, it makes it easier for individuals to access a variety of resources, including valuable information, help from peers, and shared resources. All of this forms a close network of support between communities, demonstrating the importance of social connectedness in enriching access and resources for each individual [15,16,43,44,45,46,47,48,49]. In terms of having access to social networks and being a part of groups, social capital demonstrates the social interaction process society [47] Types of social capital, such as bonding, bridging, and linking, can be used to categorise how social interaction occurs when people are accessing resources. The social capital typology describes the social interactional traits of various people. When community association residents collaborate, the community has social capital. Together, they create networks among people who share traits, such as ethnic and regional affinities, coworkers of similar ethnicity, neighbours, family members, and best friends [48] While this happens, social capital can be bridged if people cooperate and form networks, have similar geographic characteristics, have equal rights and obligations, and have ownership of authority. Suppose a community or group of communities has connections to other parties in the network who are in positions of greater authority or power, such as governmental organisations. In that case, this is called social capital being linked [49].

2.2. Community Reciprocity with Tourism Activities

Reciprocity is an exchange between people or groups at every level of society. The idea of reciprocity explains movements between symmetrical groups that are correlated. Due to the frequent practice of reciprocal relationships between individuals or groups, this occurs. While a relationship can be referred to as symmetrical, it involves two parties who occupy essentially the same positions and roles during an exchange process. Although there is an exchange, reciprocity can also be referred to as reciprocal sacrifice because it is unique. Reciprocity is an exchange between people or groups [50] Reciprocity is a pattern of socioeconomic exchange in which people exchange goods or services out of a sense of social responsibility [3].

Reciprocity develops due to other people’s patterns of socioeconomic exchange; this can happen with local tourism activities. With the existence of tourism-related activities, opinions or perceptions frequently develop that these activities will negatively impact local communities’ cultural values. On the other hand, the objective evaluation of tourism-related activities indicates that they will help preserve cultural values. Since the emergence of tourism-related activities will encourage the development of local indigenous culture, reviving cultural elements that have vanished will be possible. Local communities near popular tourist destinations can also have access rights to use the resources nearby, have a high chance of seizing opportunities, and have the freedom to express themselves to support tourism growth in the region where they live [51]. Utilising these resources can lead to collaboration between the local tourism industry and the community, typically involving economic issues. Cooperation increases income, manages resources, and forms partnerships [51].

Tourism development not only depends on stimulating community cooperation but also involves close reciprocal relationships between local actors in the tourism industry. The economic benefits resulting from supporting the development of networks of local actors involved in tourism are not just coincidental but are a natural consequence of the multiplier effect of tourism. This multiplier effect creates a chain of positive impacts, including increased spending in the local sector, job creation, and economic growth that can be felt by various parties in the local community. Therefore, it is important to appreciate that the active participation of local communities and stakeholders is key to ensuring a sustainable positive impact from tourism development, not only in the direct economic aspect but also in improving the overall welfare of the community [52,53,54]. Tourism makes a positive contribution as a driver of social change in agricultural communities. Economically, the tourism sector creates new income opportunities and reduces dependence on agriculture. Socially, interactions with tourists enrich cultural heritage and strengthen community identity. Thus, the role of tourism is not only limited to the economy, but also forms positive social dynamics in agricultural communities [55].

The form of the mutually beneficial relationship that develops between Kampung Coklat Tourism and the residents of Plosorejo Village is that the tourism manager offers capital in the form of cocoa tree seeds for the residents of Plosorejo Village to plant, as well as assistance in the form of the socialisation of cocoa plant nurseries. Additionally, the manager of Kampung Coklat Tourism enables the residents of Plosorejo Village to directly contribute by working at tourist attractions and permits the neighbourhood to trust agricultural production and locally produced goods. Communities near popular tourist destinations take advantage of the opportunities provided by these activities by opening parking lots, helping to maintain parking regulations, and establishing food stands, lodging options, and shops for souvenirs. The people of Plosorejo Village may benefit economically from work to develop the Kampung Coklat tourism area. The growth of a tourist destination may impact people’s income, employment prospects, and ability to start their businesses.

2.3. Social Capital and Reciprocity

Social capital is a social organisation characteristic of networks, norms, and beliefs supporting action and cooperation for mutual benefit [56]. Moreover, Putnam [39] and Field [40] added the definition of social capital, which is a component of social life (networks, norms, and beliefs) that motivates participants to work more effectively as a team to achieve shared objectives [40,41]. Social organisation components like beliefs, norms, and social networks that can promote intercommunal cooperation are referred to as social capital. Social capital is a series of norms or informal norms shared by community members that allow cooperation between them [23]. Due to the pre-existing requirement of substantial social capital in the community, this joint community cooperation is possible. The pattern of reciprocal and mutually beneficial relationships that characterise this cooperation, which is based on trust and upheld by robust and admirable social norms and values, is evident [22].

Social capital theory has been the focus of empirical research in many local community contexts. The research illustrates how social capital, including trust, social networks, and social norms, plays a role in the dynamics of social relationships and structures at the local level and provides basic understanding for the development of effective strategies and policies to utilise social capital to improve the well-being and development of local communities [57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64]. The characteristics of social capital, which originate from the social conditions of society, have a direct impact on the economy and culture at the national and regional levels. Therefore, sectors such as education, health services, culture, housing, and community services play an important role in the economic development of the region [61]. Social capital can create reciprocal relationships between communities. Although social capital plays a role in bridging gaps and establishing connections, it is not solely responsible for these connections [22] Social capital has been compared to a lubricant that improves the effectiveness of a group or organisation [23] People exchange goods and services in a reciprocal socioeconomic system out of a sense of social duty [3] Limitations of reciprocity are defined as the exchange of goods or services between symmetrically related groups [50] In this social relationship, which is symmetrical, each party assumes the same position and function during the exchange process. Human relationships are based on reciprocal and social obligations, which can be considered the social capital that holds society together [62].

3. Methods

3.1. Research Hypotheses

This section will go over the relevant hypotheses that were used in this study based on the background that has been studied.

The primary way bonding social capital differs from bridging social capital is in the strength of the ties that hold its members together [38]. The level of trust may have a greater impact on members with stronger ties and shared values than on members with weaker ties and diverse backgrounds. Social capital is also defined as the capacity resulting from informal values or norms shared by group members that promote cooperation [63]. This ability results from general trust in a community or specific parts. These results show that trust encourages social interaction among participants to build social capital, which may indirectly increase social capital. The following is the given hypothesis:

H1: 

Social capital ties are positively impacted by interpersonal trust [64].

According to the reciprocity theory, generosity can increase profits, including social capital [5]. One study discovered that individuals who experienced reciprocity exhibited higher social capital overall compared to individuals who did not experience reciprocity, though this difference was not statistically significant [65]. Thus, the suggested hypothesis is:

H2: 

Social capital and reciprocity correlate positively [66].

3.2. Research Variables

Research variables are objects that will be studied and observed and can be measured. This study has variables and several indicators determined based on the research objectives. The following variables are modifications of researchers from previous studies in

Table 1. Research Variables.

No	Objective	Variable	SubVariabel	Indicator	Source
1	Knowing the condition of social capital in Plosorejo Village, Kademangan District, Blitar Regency	Social Capital	Trust	level of trust in society level of trust in village institutions the level of trust in the village/government apparatus the level of trust in information related to the development programme to be implemented	[38,56]
			Norms	the level of adherence to prevailing customary rules the level of attendance in participating in customary activities/events	[38,56]
			Network	community level of communication level of involvement in the activity level of activity in conflict resolution	[38,56]
2	To describe the relationship between social capital and the reciprocity of the people of Plosorejo Village and Kampung Coklat Tourism	Social Capital	Trust	level of trust in society level of trust in village institutions the level of trust in the village/government apparatus the level of trust in information related to the development programme to be implemented	[38,56]
			Norms	the level of adherence to prevailing customary rules the level of attendance in participating in customary activities/events	[38,56]
			Network	community level of communication level of involvement in the activity level of activity in conflict resolution	[38,56]
		Reciprocity	-	cooperation in increasing income cooperation in the management of resource outcomes cooperation in partnerships/networks	[50,51,67]

.

3.3. Sample

Purposive sampling and accidental sampling, both non-probability methods, were used in this study. Because this research does not give the population equal opportunities to become a sample, a sampling technique known as purposeful sampling is used used [68] Purposeful sampling is a data collection technique that selects the sample based on specific criteria [69] Purposive sampling, which focuses on a single group or the same (homogeneous) group, can be used to collect homogeneous samples. This sample’s characteristics were chosen based on similarity or because they share certain traits.

In contrast, accidental sampling relies on chance, or anyone who visits the research site and runs into researchers and respondents who is deemed appropriate as a source of data may be used as a respondent [69] Three groups were used in this study: those directly connected to tourism, those indirectly connected to tourism, and those not directly connected to tourism. The Krejcie–Morgan formula calculates the number of samples to be chosen. A sample calculation using the Krejcie–Morgan formula is provided below [70], then

Table 2. Number of samples by group.

Groups	Numbers	Calculation	Samples
Community-related direct tourism	385	$\frac{334}{2664}\times 385$	48
Communities related to tourism indirectly	652	$\frac{334}{2664}\times 652$	82
The community is not related to tourism	1627	$\frac{334}{2664}\times 1627$	204
Total	2664 people		334

shows the sample calculations in the study:

Sample calculation using the Krejcie–Morgan formula:

$$S=\frac{x^2·N·P\left(1-P\right)}{d^2·\left(N-1\right)+x^2·P\left(1-P\right)}$$

Information:

S = number of samples

N = total population

P = population proportion (0.5)

x² = table value x² (3.841)

d = degree of error (0.05)

$S=\frac{x^2·N·P\left(1-P\right)}{d^2·\left(N-1\right)+x^2·P\left(1-P\right)}$

$S=\frac{3.841·2664·0.5\left(1-0.5\right)}{{0.05}^2·\left(2664-1\right)+3.841·0.5\left(1-0.5\right)}$

$S=\frac{2558.11}{7.66 }$

$S =$ 334

Calculation of the sample for each group uses the formula:

$$\mathrm{the}\mathrm{number}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{samples}\mathrm{per}\mathrm{class}=\frac{\mathrm{the}\mathrm{number}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{samples}}{\mathrm{the}\mathrm{number}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{population}}\times \mathrm{the}\mathrm{number}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{each}\mathrm{class}$$

According to Table 2, there are 48 people employed by Kampung Coklat Tourism who work in tourist areas, along with cocoa farmers and suppliers from Plosorejo Village. While 82 individuals connected to indirect tourism, such as shops or vendors and the neighbourhood, who clear their land for parking in the vicinity of Kampung Coklat Tourism and the neighbourhood indirectly benefit. The 204 nonrelated individuals, meanwhile, were villager residents with no connection to Kampung Coklat tourism. Since one respondent from the same household was thought to have represented an opinion regarding the social capital of the village community, it was decided not to choose respondents who shared a single residence. The respondents to this study had characteristics based on their gender, age, education level, type of employment, and income.

3.4. Analysis Method

Other names for SEM include causal modelling, causal analysis, simultaneous equation modelling, and covariance structure analysis [71] In this study, the SEM method—which works with data of different scales—is used with PLS analysis. The SEM-PLS technique can be applied with small sample sizes without making assumptions [72] The measurement of latent variables, indicator variables, and errors in direct measurements are all examples of research constructs that can be analysed using the SEM-PLS technique [73].

The general process for implementing the appropriate SEM includes constant measurement of the structural model. A measurement model uses empirical indicators to validate a dimension or factor. A structural model is a theory that examines how relationships between various factors, constructs, and variables are formed or explained.

3.5. Study Context

This research was conducted in Plosorejo Village, which is one of the villages in Kademangan District, Blitar Regency. Blitar Regency is one of 38 regencies and cities in East Java Province. Its territory is on the coast of the Indian Ocean, and its northern, southern, eastern, and western borders are with the other regencies of Kediri, Malang, and Tulungagung.

Plosorejo Village is situated in Kademangan District, one of the regions in Blitar Regency, with 45 neighbourhood units and 10 community units. The village is 137 m above sea level and covers an area of 857.2 hectares. Plosorejo Village is divided into two hamlets, namely Krajan Hamlet and Paraan Hamlet. There are 2664 household heads in Plosorejo Village, which has a population of 7989 people, including 3998 men and 3991 women. The village of Plosorejo’s boundaries are as follows:

North: Brantas River

South: State forest

East: Darungan Village

West: Rejowinangun Village

4. Results

4.1. SEM of Social Capital

Before conducting tests to determine how constructs in a structural model relate, it is necessary to assess the measurement model to confirm any indicators or manifest variables with construct dimensions that can be tested later. A reflective indicator model is the foundation for the entire measurement model used in this study. Reflective indicators alert the user to changes in one construct’s indicator when another indicator in the same construct also changes. The reliability of indicators reveals the variation of indicators that can be accounted for by the social capital construct’s dimensions. If the correlation between reflective size and the construct to be measured is greater than 0.70, it can be said that the reflective size is high. The loading factor of 0.50 to 0.60 is considered adequate for research in the early stages of developing a value measurement scale [74].

Based on the illustration, it is clear that the dimension of trust (K) is composed of four indicators or manifest variables with value loading factors ranging from 0.739 to 0.845. Three indicators or manifest variables, with value loading factors ranging from 0.777 to 0.864, comprise the second dimension of the social network (J). The norm dimension (N) comprises two manifest variables or indicators with value loading factors of 0.478 and 0.972. The findings of the validity and significance tests in the model’s initial stage are as follows in

Table 3. The first phase model’s significance test and validity test for respondent groups related to tourism and non-tourism.

Variable	Indicator	Loading Factor ($\ge$0.50)	Composite Reliability ($\ge$0.70)	p-Value ($\le$0.05)
Trust (K)	K1	0.818	0.880	0.000
	K2	0.739
	K3	0.845
	K4	0.813
Network (J)	J1	0.830	0.864	0.000
	J2	0.846
	J3	0.777
Norms (N)	N1	0.478	0.718	0.000
	N2	0.972

Source: Analysis results (2024).

below.

Based on the Table 3, it can be seen that the social capital construct dimension indicators are all valid due to the value-composite reliability and the requirement-compliant p-value. It is necessary to remove the invalid indicator because not all indicators that measure each construct dimension have value loading factors greater than 0.50. The degree of adherence to applicable customary laws is the indicator that needs to be eliminated (N1). Recalculating using a new model is undertaken after the invalid indicators have been removed. The second stage of the model’s measurement model produced the following results.

The figure illustrates how the dimension of trust (K), included in the measurement model’s second stage, comprises four manifest variables or indicators with value loading factors ranging from 0.740 to 0.844. The second dimension, social networks (J), comprises three indicators, specifically those with value loading factors ranging from 0.779 to 0.864. In the meantime, the norm dimension (N), which is made up of a single indicator with a value loading factor of 1.000, is formed. The outcomes of the model’s second stage’s validity and significance tests are listed in

Table 4. Validity tests and significance tests for the second stage model.

Variable	Indicator	Loading Factor ($\ge$0.50)	Composite Reliability ($\ge$0.70)	p-Value ($\le$0.05)
Trust (K)	K1	0.818	0.880	0.000
	K2	0.740
	K3	0.844
	K4	0.813
Network (J)	J1	0.829	0.864	0.000
	J2	0.864
	J3	0.779
Norms (N)	N2	1.000	1.000	0.000

Source: Analysis results (2024).

below.

Table 4 demonstrates that the second-stage measurement model was significant and satisfied the criteria. The remaining eight indicators are considered valid with a total value loading factor of 0.50 and have a significant value with a composite value reliability of 0.70, a p-value of 0.05, and a composite value reliability of 0.70. Eight indicators have been determined to be valid and significant, which indicates that they can accurately measure the dimensions of the construct they have created. As a result, the model’s second stage of indicator elimination is not necessary, and the next process can instead be a model feasibility test, also known as a fitness model or goodness-of-fit test.

The second stage model is the most accurate compared to the first, and this is since the model’s initial stage still uses invalid indicators. The second stage of the model’s output has also answered the first research goal: to identify the social capital traits of the residents of Plosorejo Village in Kademangan District, Blitar Regency.

4.2. The Linkage of Social Capital and Community Reciprocity

This analysis serves as a follow-up to the fit model results that were previously obtained. Nine indicators measure each social capital construct and the variables trust, social networks, and norms. Three indicators were used in this study to gauge the reciprocity variable. The three indicators are collaboration for income growth (R1), collaboration for resource management (R2), and collaboration for partnerships and professional networks (R3). The relationship between the residents of Plosorejo Village and Kampung Coklat Tourism serves as a test to see if social capital influences reciprocity or reciprocity in the form of mutual assistance. The outcomes of the SEM test between the reciprocity and social capital variables are listed below.

It is known that no indicators have a value loading factor less than 0.50 based on the measurement outcomes of the model. Therefore, it is not necessary to discard valid indicators and models. Additionally, tests for discriminant and convergent validity can be performed. The convergent and discriminant validity test findings for the groups of respondents who were involved in and were not involved in tourism are listed below.

Based on the image, it is clear that three indicators with loading factors ranging from 0.529 to 0.934 make up reciprocity (R), which is a mathematical concept. Since it is known that no indicators exist with a value loading factor lower than 0.5, there is no need to get rid of any indicators. The significance and validity of the reciprocity-based social capital path diagram construct are tested in

Table 5. Diagram of the pathway of social capital with the reciprocity of travel and non-tourism respondent groups.

Variable	Indicator	Loading Factor ($\ge$0.50)	Composite Reliability ($\ge$0.70)	p-Value ($\le$0.05)	AVE ($\ge$0.50)
Trust (K)	K1	0.818	0.880	0.000	0.648
	K2	0.739
	K3	0.844
	K4	0.813
Network (J)	J1	0.829	0.864	0.000	0.680
	J2	0.865
	J3	0.779
Norms (N)	N2	1.000	1.000	0.000	1.000
Reciprocity (R)	R1	0.934	0.833	0.000	0.636
	R2	0.870
	R3	0.529

Source: Analysis results (2024).

below.

Table 5 demonstrates that the second-stage measurement model was significant and satisfied the criteria. The remaining 11 indicators are considered significant, with a value composite reliability of 0.70, a p-value of 0.05, and a validity score of 0.50 overall. It has been determined that the 11 indicators are valid and significant, meaning they can accurately measure the dimensions of the construct they have created. Also, value discriminant validity is advantageous if it has a value square root of average variance extracted (AVE) of 0.50. According to the table, the AVE value is 0.50, indicating that all variables are valid for testing discriminant validity. The next step is to ascertain whether the social capital variable influences the reciprocity variable. The value of the R-square indicates this. These numbers represent each variable’s R-squared value. The following are the variables for tourism and non-tourism groups’ R-square values for social capital and reciprocity in

Table 6. Variables for tourism and non-tourism groups’ R-square values for social capital and reciprocity.

Variable	R-Square	Presence of Influence	Information
Social Capital	1.000	100%	Good
Reciprocity	0.041	4.1%	Weak

Source: Analysis results (2024).

below.

According to Table 6 above, the R-square value for the reciprocity variable with groups of respondents related to tourism and non-tourism is 0.041. This demonstrates how the 4.1% reciprocity variable and the variable for social capital interact. Furthermore, the coefficient’s direct effect can be used to quantify the impact that norms, social networks, and trust have on reciprocity. An overview of the variables that form social capital is provided in the table below.

The relationship between trust and reciprocity is positively and significantly impacted by trust, according to the coefficient direct effect reciprocity to trust, which has a value of 0.097. Therefore, there is a likelihood that reciprocity will rise as trust levels rise. The value of 0.080 for the coefficient’s direct effect indicates that social networks positively and significantly influence reciprocity towards social networks. Reciprocity has a propensity to rise when the social network is improving. Reciprocity towards the norm has a direct effect coefficient of 0.031, which indicates that the norm significantly and favourably influences reciprocity. Reciprocity will likely rise with improved social norms. Therefore, from the measurement, it can be inferred that social norms, social networks, and trust positively and significantly impact society’s reciprocity. The measurements demonstrate that social capital has served as a binding force for the residents of Plosorejo Village and impacts their sense of reciprocity.

5. Discussions

Based on the findings of the SEM-PLS analysis, trust, social networks, and norms form the dimensions of the social capital construct, with reciprocity acting as an endogenous variable. Because all dimensions have factor loading values that meet the minimum value, it can be said that all dimensions of social capital and reciprocity are valid for measuring the measuring variables.

Trust has a positive and significant influence on social capital in both tourism- and non-tourism-related respondent groups (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4). Then, trust also has a positive and significant effect on reciprocity. In other words, the level of trust held will have a greater impact on the development of social capital and reciprocity (

Table 7. Total effects of reciprocity on social-capital-forming factors for groups related to and unrelated to tourism.

Indicator	Path Coefficient	Standard Error	T-Statistic	p-Value	Decision
Trust (K) → Reciprocity (R)	0.097	0.017	5.657	0.000	Accepted
Network (J) → Reciprocity (R)	0.080	0.013	6.237	0.000	Accepted
Norms (N) → Reciprocity (R)	0.031	0.004	6.966	0.000	Accepted

Source: Analysis results (2024).

). Putnam [75] asserted that a community’s propensity for cooperation increases with the degree of mutual trust present. As a result, the residents of Plosorejo Village already possess a sense of trust that has allowed for the development of social capital and reciprocity. In order to increase revenue and meet basic needs, the community can collaborate with the village government, institutions, and Kampung Coklat through a reciprocal process that has been established.

With a fairly large total social network influence value (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4) and supported by the value of reciprocal influence on social networks (Table 7), this means that social networks have a positive and significant effect on social capital for groups of respondents related to the tourism and non-tourism industries. According to Putnam [75], a healthy community will have a strong social network, which can foster feelings of cooperation and gain from participation. The inhabitants of Plosorejo Village have social networks that can create social capital and reciprocity, as seen from this. The community, village organisations, and Kampung Coklat have formed a social network that has a joint agreement on the management of the parking area, allowing landowners to use their property as a parking area and agreeing to equalise visitor parking rates to prevent social jealousy.

Norms also have a positive and significant influence on social capital in both tourism- and non-tourism-related respondent groups, with a quite large total influence value in (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4) and supported by reciprocal values towards norms (Table 7). The resulting influence value shows that norms have a positive and significant effect on reciprocity. Hauberer [76] asserts that the norm’s key feature is a reciprocal process in which people assist one another. The community’s adherence to accepted norms is quite high in Plosorejo Village and Kampung Coklat Tourism, where residents still follow ancestral traditions. Due to the existence of traditions and norms, Kampung Coklat’s residents feel a sense of obligation to one another, which is reflected in networks and partnerships where rules must be followed.

According to the results (Table 7), social capital is a factor both in the Kampung Coklat Tourism Village and in Plosorejo Village that influences the reciprocal variables as a whole model. Thus, social capital is very important to overcome the dangers and variability of the current climate [77,78], it also implies reciprocity [79] The community’s dependence on cooperation with tourism, which can increase the local community’s income, is one example of how the reciprocal relationship between the citizens of Plosorejo Village and Kampung Coklat Tourism can strengthen social capital. However, it cannot be denied that Kampung Coklat Tourism impacts the income growth that is felt by all residents of Plosorejo Village, even in communities where tourism is not a significant source of income. Kampung Coklat Tourism has demonstrated this in practice, which has created direct and indirect job opportunities for the community. Social interaction that successfully combines individual and collective aspirations intending to develop tourist destinations is the foundation upon which the social capital of the inhabitants of Plosorejo Village and Kampung Coklat Tourism is built. As a result, cooperation has made the issue of shared interest for all parties involved; this action promotes reciprocity, which catalyses social cohesion [80]. However, the findings of this study differ from those of earlier studies, which claim that reciprocity and social capital are significantly correlated [64]. The influence results, which only mention 4%, show that reciprocity has little impact on social capital and can therefore be influenced by factors other than social capital.

6. Conclusions

Three forming variables, namely trust, social networks, and social norms, make up the social capital of the Plosorejo Village community that is connected to and unconnected from Kampung Coklat Tourism. The most important factor influencing the social capital of the residents of Plosorejo Village is trust, with a high trust value for each group of respondents. Trust positively and significantly impacts social capital for respondents related to and unrelated to tourism, with a total effect value of 0.491. The total effect value of trust on social capital is 0.525, which is both favourable and significant. The relationship between social capital and reciprocity in the community is only marginally significant, where groups of respondents with a connection to tourism and those without it received 4.1%. This research can be used as a starting point for further research into the significance of reciprocity in peer-to-peer interactions in other contexts within the sharing economy by highlighting its significance in specific contexts.

This research has the limitations of focusing on the three main variables of trust, social networks, and social norms as forms of social capital. Other variables that may have an important contribution to a community’s social capital may not be included in this study. So, the recommendations given to the Plosorejo Village government are based on research studies; it is hoped that the government will first disseminate information about the programme to village leaders so that it can be communicated to all levels of society and be more effectively accepted by the community. Apart from that, the government is also expected to continue to strive to maintain public trust in the government, especially in certain conditions such as a pandemic. If communication between the government and society is not established effectively, this situation can cause the level of trust to decrease. Decreasing levels of trust can hamper the progress of government programmes. Although the research provides recommendations to the Plosorejo Village government, it is important to remember that these recommendations depend on the sustainability of the proposed programme. The effectiveness of these recommendations can increase if the government can continue and strengthen programmes that support community social capital. In line with this, research on social capital and reciprocity can be applied to cases with similar contexts, one of which is in terms of programmes or initiatives that support strengthening public trust in the government and between individuals in the community. Effective communication and transparency in conveying information can help build and maintain high levels of trust.

This research has a research limitation that the respondent groups in this study are limited to tourism directly related to the community, communities indirectly related to tourism, and communities not related to tourism. Thus, the number of respondents in this study was small, especially in community groups involved in direct tourism, where the group only consisted of cocoa farmers from Plosorejo Village and Kampung Coklat Tourism employees. Future research could expand the diversity of the groups involved. This can provide further insight into the impact of social capital in various contexts and sectors of society. It is hoped that future researchers can expand the scope of respondents by including respondents from other related parties to better understand the impact of social capital on reciprocity. This will help reduce bias in this study. Furthermore, to classify the various types of social capital used by the people of Plosorejo Village in accessing resources and understanding the state of social capital in the community more fully, it is hoped that in future research we can look more closely at this social capital in the Plosorejo Village community and Kampung Coklat Tourism. Although this study has weaknesses regarding the number of respondents, this can be considered as an opportunity for further research. By involving more stakeholders, future research could provide a more comprehensive picture of the impact of social capital on reciprocity.