Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Sete Cidades, Azores Archipelago: First Ethnomedicinal Report
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Informant Characterization
2.2. Ethnomedicinal Flora
2.3. Target Diseases or Conditions
2.4. Administration Routes
2.5. Plant Parts Used in the Present Study
2.6. Use Value and Comparative Analysis of Medicinal Plants Importance
3. Discussion
3.1. Discussion of Informant Profile, Target Diseases and Administration Routes
3.2. Scientific Evidence to Support Ethnomedicinal Report
3.3. Toxicological Evidence of Medicinal Plants
3.4. Comparative Analysis of the Reported Medicinal Flora with other Portuguese Regions, Iberian Peninsula and World
3.5. Sustainable Harvesting, Commercialization and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Study Area and Its Socioeconomic Background
4.2. Ethnomedicinal Data Collection and Ethnographic Composition
4.3. Preservation and Taxonomic Verifications of Plant Species
4.4. Data Analysis
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Plant Name | Preparation Mode | Posology | Adverse Effects |
---|---|---|---|
Allium cepa L. | For the infusion, fresh and dried peels can be used, and for the decoction, fresh peels. Inhale vapors of the infusion of the bulb peels mixed with A. sativum for 10 minutes. When infusing, don’t let it boil. To prepare the decoction, mix the bulb peels with leaves and bark of E. umbellata, R. ulmifolius, P. cattleianum, A. sativum and M. sylvestris, plenty of each ingredient to ¾ L of water. At the end, remove the M. sylvestris. Peels can be conserved dried. | Drink the infusion and inhale its vapors before going to bed and when waking up. Drink the decoction three times a day: in the morning, lunch time and night. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Allium sativum L. | For the infusion and the decoction fresh and dried peels can be used. Inhale vapors of the infusion of the bulb peels mixed with A. cepa for 10 minutes. When infusing, don’t let it boil. To prepare the decoction, mix the bulb peels with leaves and bark of E. umbellata, R. ulmifolius, P. cattleianum, A. cepa and M. sylvestris, plenty of each ingredient to ¾ L of water. At the end, remove the M. sylvestris. Peels can be conserved dried. | Drink the infusion and inhale its vapors before going to bed and when waking up. Drink the decoction three times a day: in the morning, lunch time and night. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Aloysia citriodora Palau | For the infusion, use fresh leaves, and for the decoction fresh and dried leaves can be used. To treat colds, infuse 15 leaves per liter of water. To prepare the infusion and the decoction for other medicinal uses, infuse 3 to 4 soup spoons of leaves per liter of water. Leaves can be conserved dried. | To treat colds, drink the infusion every day. Drink the other infusion or decoction for other medicinal uses throughout the day, without drinking it many days in a row. | Infusion made for colds should not be given to children younger than 5 years old |
Chelidonium majus L. | Use fresh stem. Extract the juice or latex and apply in the wound until it gets dark. Stem is not conserved. | Apply only once directly in the wound until it gets dark. | No |
Clinopodium menthifolium subsp. ascendens (Jord.) Govaerts | Use leaves or whole plant fresh or dried. To prepare the decoction: to use in colds and flu, gallbladder pain, mix dried or fresh leaves with 3 coffee spoons of ginger, 1 spoon of honey and 1 cinnamon stick; to use in urinary problems and bladder pain, decoct 3 to 4 leaves per liter of water, and mix with other plants if desired. To prepare the infusion or decoction to use in stomach pain or abdominal cramps, infuse or decoct 15 g/L of water. Use fresh leaves to prepare juice. Whole plant and leaves can be conserved dried and closed away from direct sun light to prepare a cigarette. | Decoction for colds and flu can be drinked as desired. Drink infusion or decoction for stomach pain and abdominal cramps only when in pain. Drink 1.5 L of decoction for urinary problems or bladder pain. | No |
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck | Use fresh peels. To prepare the infusion and the decoction use lemon peel according to taste. Juice can be diluted. They can be mixed with only M. x piperita or adding more 1 coffee spoon of ginger, 1 spoon of honey and 1 spoon of cinnamon. Peels can be conserved in the fridge or frozen. | The infusion, decoction and juice (diluted or not) should be drinked whenever feeling sick or before going to bed. | No |
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants | To prepare the infusion use fresh leaves and flowers according to taste. Leaves and flowers are not conserved. | As desired. | No |
Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. | Use fresh leaves. To prepare the decoction, mix the bulb peels with leaves and bark of M. sylvestris, R. ulmifolius, P. cattleianum, A. sativum and A. cepa, plenty of each ingredient to ¾ L of water. At the end, remove the malvas. The leaves are not conserved. | Drink the decoction three times a day: in the morning, lunch time and night. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. | Use fresh leaves and stem. Infuse 15 g/L of water. Leaves are not conserved. | Prepare and drink only when in pain or urinary problems. | No |
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. | Leaves and flowers can be used fresh or dried. To prepare the infusion or decoction use 25 to 30 g/L of water. Leaves and flowers can be conserved dried. | Drink 2 to 3 teacups a day. | No |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | Use fresh flowers and roots, and dried leaves. Seeds can be used dried and fresh. To prepare the infusion to gargle, use 1 teaspoon of seeds for one glass of water. To prepare decoction against menstrual pain, use 20 g of fresh seeds or 30 g of fresh roots per litre of water; for abdominal cramps, colds or stomach pain, use 20 g of dried seeds or 20 g of dried leaves per litre of water. Prepare a flower soup according to taste, to treat liver problems. The infusion, decoction or soup using fresh ingredients cannot be conserved. Leaves and seeds can be conserved dried in a dry place. | Gargle with infusion when in pain. Decoction used for menstrual pain should be ingested three days before menstruation. Flower soup should be consumed continuously. Decoction used in abdominal cramps, colds or stomach pain should be given to babies and alternated with breast milk. | No |
Fragaria vesca L. | Use fresh leaves only. Infuse 15 g/L of water. Leaves are not conserved. | Prepare and drink only when in pain or urinary problems. | No |
Hedera helix L. | Use fresh leaves only. Infuse 15 g/L of water. Leaves are not conserved. | Prepare and drink only when in pain or urinary problems. | No |
Malva sylvestris L. | Use fresh leaves and whole plant. To prepare the poultice boil 30 to 40 leaves per litre of water. To prepare the infusion and maceration, use 20 leaves per litre of water. To gargle, use infusion. To prepare the decoction, mix the leaves with leaves and bark of E. umbellata, R. ulmifolius, P. cattleianum, A. sativum and A. cepa, plenty of each ingredient to ¾ L of water. The plant is not conserved. | Apply the poultice until the wound heals. Wash the face with the infusion every day, and gargle with it until fully recovered. Drink the decoction 3 times a day: in the morning, at lunch time and night. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Melissa officinalis L. | Prepare the decoction using fresh leaves to taste. Leaves are not conserved. | Use the decoction in the soaking bath before going to bed. Drink 1 to 2 times a day. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Mentha spicata L. | Use fresh leaves. To prepare the decoction, use 10 to 30 g/L of water. Leaves are not conserved | Drink at lunch and dinner. | No |
Mentha × piperita L. | Use fresh leaves. To prepare the infusion or decoction to drink or gargle, use a couple of leaves for ½ L of water. Leaves are not conserved. The drink can be conserved in the fridge. | Drink the infusion or decoction, or gargle with it, during the day as desired, at room temperature. Inhale the vapors from the infusion for 10 minutes. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Morella faya (Aiton) Wilbur | Use dry seeds and fresh leaves. To prepare a poultice, burn the dried seeds, and mix them if desired with olive oil, to create a past to apply topically. Prepare the decoction using fresh leaves according to taste. Seeds are conserved dried. | Apply the poultice once a day in the wound until it closes. Rub the scalp during the bath with the decoction. Drink the decoction when having abdominal cramps or leg pain. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Origanum majorana L. | Prepare the decoction using fresh leaves according to taste. Leaves are not conserved. | As desired. | No |
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss | Use fresh leaves. To prepare decoction, use leaves of 1 to 2 twigs per coffee pot. Leaves are not conserved. | As desired. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Psidium cattleianum Afzel. ex Sabine | Use fresh or dried leaves. To prepare the decoction: to use in stomach pain, use 3 to 4 fresh or dried leaves per litre of water; to use in diarrhea, mix the fresh leaves with M. sylvestris, R. ulmifolius, E. umbellata, A. sativum and A. cepa, plenty of each ingredient. At the end, remove the malvas. Leaves are conserved dried. | Drink 1.5 L a day of decoction for stomach pain until feeling better. Drink the decoction for diarrhea 3 times a day: morning, lunch time and night. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Rosmarinus officinalis L. | Use fresh leaves and flowers. Prepare the maceration according to taste. To prepare the decoction use 20 to 30 g of fresh leaves and/or flowers per litre of water. Leaves and flowers can be conserved dried. | Use the maceration in the soaking bath but only in the morning and never at night-time as it disturbs the sleep. Drink the decoction when in pain. | No |
Rubus ulmifolius Schott | Use fresh or dried shoots and buds. Infuse 30 g/L of water of fresh or dried shoots and buds. To prepare the decoction, use fresh shoots and buds mixed with M. sylvestris, E. umbellata, P. cattleianum, A. sativum and A. cepa, plenty of each ingredient to ¾ L of water. At the end remove the malvas. Shoots and buds are conserved dried. | Both the infusion and the decoction should be drunk 3 times a day: morning, at lunch time and night. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Ruta chalepensis L. | Use fresh leaves. Infuse up to a maximum of 20 g/L of water of fresh leaves. Leaves are not conserved. | Drink throughout the day. | Infusing more than 20g of leaves per liter gets toxic. Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Salvia officinalis L. | Use fresh or dried leaves and flowers. Decoct 30 g of fresh or dried leaves and flowers per litre of water. The infusion is prepared according to taste. Leaves are conserved dried. | As desired. | No |
Sambucus nigra L. | Use fresh flowers. Decoct 10 to 15 flowers per litre of water. Flowers are not conserved. | Drink 3 cups a day. | Do not give to children younger than 5 years old |
Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund | Use fresh or dried leaves. The infusion is prepared according to taste. Use fresh leaves for salads in meals. Leaves are conserved dried. | Drink and consume continuously. | No |
Thymus vulgaris L. | Use fresh leaves. Infuse. Leaves are not conserved. | As desired. | No |
Tilia × europaea L. | Use fresh or dried leaves and flowers. Decoct 30 g/L of water of fresh or dried leaves and/or flowers. The infusion is prepared according to taste. Leaves and flowers are conserved dried. | As desired. | No |
Plant Species | A | B | C | D | E | Frequency | Absolute |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Allium cepa L. | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
Allium sativum L. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Aloysia citriodora Palau | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Chelidonium majus L. | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 |
Clinopodium menthifolium subsp. ascendens (Jord.) Govaerts | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 |
Fragaria vesca L. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
Hedera helix L. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
Malva sylvestris L. | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
Melissa officinalis L. | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 |
Mentha spicata L. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Mentha × piperita L. | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 |
Morella faya (Aiton) Wilbur | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Origanum majorana L. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Psidium cattleianum Afzel. ex Sabine | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Rosmarinus officinalis L. | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 |
Rubus ulmifolius Schott | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
Ruta chalepensis L. | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
Salvia officinalis L. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 |
Sambucus nigra L. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 |
Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Thymus vulgaris L. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Tilia × europaea L. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Total | 6 | 10 | 13 | 9 | 5 | 19 |
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Botanical name Family (Voucher) | Vernacular Name | Parts Used | Methods of Administration | Popular Uses and Treatment | UV a | RFC b | M/F c |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Allium cepa L. Amaryllidaceae (3620) | Cebola | Bulb peels | Inhalation and ingestion | Vapours from the infusion of the bulb peels mixed with A. sativum to treat colds and cough and the infusion to treat abdominal cramps. Decoction of the bulb peels mixed with leaves and bark of E. umbellata, R. ulmifolius, P. cattleianum, A. sativum and M. sylvestris to treat diarrhoea. | 0.14 | 0.07 | F |
Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae (3621) | Alho | Bulb peels | Inhalation and ingestion | Vapours from the infusion of the bulb peels mixed with A. cepa to treat colds and cough and the infusion to treat abdominal cramps. Decoction of the bulb peels mixed with leaves and bark of E. umbellata, R. ulmifolius, P. cattleianum, A. cepa and M. sylvestris to treat diarrhoea. | 0.11 | 0.07 | F |
Aloysia citriodora Palau Verbenaceae (3498) | Lúcia-lima | Leaves | Ingestion | Infusion to treat colds, nerves, tiredness, sputum and stomach pain. Decoction to treat nerves, hypertension, gallstones, menstrual pain and nasal congestion. | 0.50 | 0.14 | F |
Chelidonium majus L. Papaveraceae (3492) | Celidónia | Stem | Dermal application | Latex or juice topically applied to treat scratches and wounds. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Rutaceae (3490) | Limão | Peels | Ingestion | The juice of lemon, infusion and decoction of peels, simple or mixed with M. x piperita, coffee, ginger, honey and cinnamon, to treat colds, flu, arthritis and cirrhosis. | 0.25 | 0.11 | F |
Clinopodium menthifolium subsp. ascendens (Jord.) Govaerts. Lamiaceae (3489) | Nêveda, neve, poejo miudinho, poejo | Whole plant and leaves | Ingestion, dermal application and inhalation | Decoction of the whole plant to treat bladder pain and urinary problems. The decoction of the leaves mixed with ginger (Zingiber officinale), honey and cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) stick to treat colds, gallbladder pain and flu. Infusion of leaves to treat abdominal cramps and stomach pain. Infusion and decoction of leaves to treat nerves, stomach pain and abdominal cramps. The leaves juice topically applied to treat mosquito bites and used as insect repellent. Smoking a cigarette made with the leaves to treat toothache. | 0.71 | 0.43 | M/F |
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Amaranthaceae (3508) | Usai-dela | Leaves and flower | Ingestion | Infusion and the juice of leaves and flowers to kill intestinal worms. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. Elaeagnaceae (3504) | Bagueira | Leaves | Ingestion | Decoction of leaves mixed with leaves and bark of M. sylvestris, R. ulmifolius, P. cattleianum, A. sativum and A. cepa to treat diarrhoea. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. Equisetaceae (3509) | Rabo-de-asno | Leaves and stem | Ingestion | Infusion of leaves and stems to treat bladder pain and urinary problems. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Myrtaceae (3510) | Eucalipto | Leaves and flower | Inhalation, ingestion and dermal application | Infusion, decoction (and their vapours) of leaves and flowers to treat flu. The poultice of leaves mixed with oil, topically applied to help in rheumatism. | 0.07 | 0.04 | F |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae (3491) | Funcho | Seed, root, leaves and flower | Gargle and ingestion | Gargling with infusion of the seeds to treat cough and hoarseness. Decoction of seeds or roots to treat menstrual pain and flowers soup to treat liver problems. Decoction of the leaves or seeds to treat abdominal cramps, colds and stomach pain. | 0.25 | 0.07 | F |
Fragaria vesca L. Rosaceae (3488) | Morangueiro | Leaves | Ingestion | Infusion of leaves to treat bladder pain and urinary problems. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae (3503) | Hera | Leaves | Ingestion | Infusion of leaves to treat bladder pain and urinary problems. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae (3501) | Malva | Leaves and whole plant | Dermal application, gargle and ingestion | Poultice of the leaves or the whole plant topically applied in wounds. Infusion and maceration of the leaves or whole plant topically applied to treat acne. Gargling with infusion of the leaves or whole plant to treat oral inflammation. Decoction of leaves mixed with leaves and bark of E. umbellata, R. ulmifolius, P. cattleianum, A. sativum and A. cepa to treat diarrhoea. | 0.18 | 0.11 | M/F |
Melissa officinalis L. Lamiaceae (3505) | Cidreira | Leaves | Dermal application and ingestion | Decoction of leaves can be ingested or topically applied in a shower to treat nerves, insomnia and heart problems. | 0.11 | 0.04 | F |
Mentha spicata L. Lamiaceae (3646) | Hortelã | Leaves | Ingestion | Decoction of leaves to treat indigestion and kill intestinal worms. | 0.07 | 0.04 | F |
Mentha x piperita L.Lamiaceae (3506) | Hortelã-pimenta | Leaves | Inhalation, ingestion and gargle | Ingestion or gargle with the infusion or decoction of leaves to treat flu, stomach pain, pains of different aetiology, indigestion, and to kill intestinal worms. Vapours from the infusion to treat nasal congestion. | 0.29 | 0.11 | M/F |
Morella faya (Aiton) Wilbur Myricaceae (3493) | Faia, Faia-da-terra; Faia-das-ilhas | Seed and leaves | Dermal application and ingestion | Poultice of burnt seeds mixed, or not, with olive oil and applied in wounds. Decoction of the leaves applied in the scalp to fortify the hair; and ingested to treat abdominal cramps and leg pain. | 0.14 | 0.07 | F |
Origanum majorana L. Lamiaceae (3487) | Ourego | Leaves | Ingestion | Decoction of leaves to treat menstrual pain. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss Apiaceae (3499) | Salsa | Leaves | Ingestion | Decoction of leaves to treat stomach and gallbladder pains and to improve memory. | 0.11 | 0.04 | F |
Psidium cattleianum Afzel. ex Sabine Myrtaceae (3507) | Gouveira-vermelha | Leaves | Ingestion | Decoction of leaves to treat stomach pain, and mixed with M. sylvestris, R. ulmifolius, E. umbellata, A. sativum and A. cepa to treat diarrhoea. | 0.07 | 0.07 | F |
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Lamiaceae (3502) | Alecrim | Leaves and flower | Dermal application and ingestion | Shower with maceration of leaves and flowers to treat blood circulation problems. Decoction of leaves and/or flowers to treat stomach pain, abdominal cramps and headaches. | 0.25 | 0.11 | F |
Rubus ulmifolius Schott Rosaceae(3496) | Silva | Shoot and bud | Ingestion | Infusion of shoot and bud to treat stomach pain. Decoction of shoot and bud mixed with M. sylvestris, E. umbellata, P. cattleianum, A. sativum and A. cepa to treat diarrhoea. | 0.07 | 0.04 | F |
Ruta chalepensis L.Rutaceae(3497) | Arruda | Leaves | Ingestion | Infusion of leaves to treat pains of kidney, bladder, stomach and spine. | 0.14 | 0.04 | F |
Salvia officinalis L. Lamiaceae (3500) | Salva | Leaves and flower | Ingestion | Decoction of leaves and flowers to treat oral inflammation and bronchitis. The infusion to treat stomach pain, nerves and cough. | 0.18 | 0.07 | F |
Sambucus nigra L. Adoxaceae (3495) | Sabugueiro | Flower | Ingestion | Decoction of flowers to treat diarrhoea and fever. | 0.07 | 0.04 | F |
Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund Compositae (3593) | Dente-de-leão | Leaves | Ingestion | Salad and infusion of leaves to treat stomach pain, indigestion and used as laxative. | 0.11 | 0.04 | F |
Thymus vulgaris L. Lamiaceae (3494) | Tomilho | Leaves | Ingestion | Infusion of leaves to treat stomach pain. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Tilia × europaea L. Malvaceae (3511) | Tília | Leaves and flower | Ingestion | Decoction of leaves and flowers to treat nerves. | 0.04 | 0.04 | F |
Previous Study | Locality | Shared Species * |
---|---|---|
Novais et al. [22] | Arrábida Natural Park, Peninsula de Setúbal, southwestern Portugal | 13 |
Neves et al. [23] | Montalegre and Chaves councils, Trás-os-Montes, northern Portugal | 9 |
Carvalho and Morales [24] | Montesinho Natural Park, Trás-os-Montes, northeastern Portugal | 5 |
Camejo-Rodrigues et al. [45] | Serra de São Mamede, Alentejo region, inner-central part of Portugal, | 10 |
Rivera and Obón [79] | Madeira and Porto Santo Islands | 6 |
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Silva, P.T.M.; Silva, M.A.F.; Silva, L.; Seca, A.M.L. Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Sete Cidades, Azores Archipelago: First Ethnomedicinal Report. Plants 2019, 8, 256. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants8080256
Silva PTM, Silva MAF, Silva L, Seca AML. Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Sete Cidades, Azores Archipelago: First Ethnomedicinal Report. Plants. 2019; 8(8):256. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants8080256
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilva, Pedro T. M., Marta A. F. Silva, Luís Silva, and Ana M. L. Seca. 2019. "Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Sete Cidades, Azores Archipelago: First Ethnomedicinal Report" Plants 8, no. 8: 256. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants8080256