Improved Frequency Sweep Keying CDMA Using Faster R-CNN for Extended Ultrasonic Crosstalk Reduction
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Related Works
2.1. Existing Keying Code Division Multiple Access
2.2. Frequency Sweep Keying Code Division Multiple Access
3. Frequency Sweep Keying CDMA Using Faster Region-Based CNN
3.1. Spectrogram and Segmentation
3.2. Code Classification Using Faster Region-Based CNN
3.3. Training Dataset
3.4. Grouping and Merging
3.5. Code Division Multiple Access Decoding
4. Experimental Results
4.1. Experimental Environment
4.2. Faster Region-Based CNN Classifier Validation
4.3. Robustness Comparison for Homogeneous Signal with Other Modulation Methods
4.4. Robustness Comparison for Heterogeneous Signal
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Kelemen, M.; Virgala, I.; Kelemenová, T.; Miková, Ľ.; Frankovský, P.; Lipták, T.; Lörinc, M. Distance measurement via using of ultrasonic sensor. J. Autom. Control 2015, 3, 71–74. [Google Scholar]
- Zhmud, V.A.; Kondratiev, N.O.; Kuznetsov, K.A.; Trubin, V.G.; Dimitrov, L.V. Application of ultrasonic sensor for measuring distances in robotics. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2018, 1015, 032189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yasin, J.N.; Mohamed, S.A.; Haghbayan, M.H.; Heikkonen, J.; Tenhunen, H.; Plosila, J. Low-cost ultrasonic based object detection and collision avoidance method for autonomous robots. Int. J. Inf. Technol. 2021, 13, 97–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Laureti, S.; Mercuri, M.; Hutchins, D.A.; Crupi, F.; Ricci, M. Modified FMCW scheme for improved ultrasonic positioning and ranging of unmanned ground vehicles at distances <50 mm. Sensors 2022, 22, 9899. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Moon, W.S.; Cho, B.S.; Jang, J.W.; Baek, K.R. A multi-robot positioning system using a multi-code ultrasonic sensor network and a Kalman filter. Int. J. Control Autom. Syst. 2010, 8, 1349–1355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, Q.; An, Z.; Yang, L. Rebooting ultrasonic positioning systems for ultrasound-incapable smart devices. In Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, Los Cabos, Mexico, 21–25 October 2019; pp. 1–16. [Google Scholar]
- Jodhani, J.; Handa, A.; Gautam, A.; Rana, R. Ultrasonic non-destructive evaluation of composites: A review. Mater. Today Proc. 2023, 78, 627–632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rehbein, J.; Lorenz, S.J.; Holtmannspötter, J.; Valeske, B. 3D-visualization of ultrasonic ndt data using mixed reality. J. Nondestruct. Eval. 2022, 41, 26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hasan, M. Applications of Ultrasonic Testing (UT) for Irregularities Detection in Human Body and Materials: A Literature Review. Int. J. Occup. Hyg. 2021, 13, 91–104. [Google Scholar]
- Zeng, W.; Lu, T.; Liu, Z.; Xu, Q.; Peng, H.; Li, C.; Yang, S.; Yao, F. Research on a laser ultrasonic visualization detection method for human skin tumors based on pearson correlation coefficient. Opt. Laser Technol. 2021, 141, 107117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bi, D.; Shi, L.; Liu, C.; Li, B.; Li, Y.; Le, L.H.; Luo, J.; Wang, S.; Ta, D. Ultrasonic through-transmission measurements of human musculoskeletal and fat properties. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 2023, 49, 347–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Susilo, J.; Febriani, A.; Rahmalisa, U.; Irawan, Y. Car parking distance controller using ultrasonic sensors based on arduino uno. J. Robot. Control 2021, 2, 353–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krishnan, P. Design of collision detection system for smart car using li-fi and ultrasonic sensor. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2018, 67, 11420–11426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tonmoy, A.B.R.; Zinan, M.S.; Sultan, S.; Sarker, A. A comparative study on LIDAR and Ultrasonic Sensor for Obstacle Avoidance Robot Car. In Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Advances in Electronics, Communication, Computing and Intelligent Information Systems, Bangalore, India, 19–21 April 2023; pp. 582–587. [Google Scholar]
- Diego, C.; Hernández, A.; Jiménez, A.; Alvarez, F.J.; Sanz, R.; Aparicio, J. Ultrasonic array for obstacle detection based on CDMA with Kasami codes. Sensors 2011, 11, 11464–11475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, S.E.; Li, G.; Yu, J.; Liu, C.; Cheng, B.; Wang, J.; Li, K. Kalman filter-based tracking of moving objects using linear ultrasonic sensor array for road vehicles. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 2018, 98, 173–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shin, S.; Kim, M.H.; Choi, S.B. Ultrasonic distance measurement method with crosstalk rejection at high measurement rate. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 2018, 68, 972–979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Medina, C.; Segura, J.C.; de la Torre, Á. A synchronous TDMA ultrasonic TOF measurement system for low-power wireless sensor networks. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 2012, 62, 599–611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, P.; Zhang, F.; Chen, J.; Sun, Y.; Shen, X. A distributed TDMA scheduling algorithm for target tracking in ultrasonic sensor networks. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2012, 60, 3836–3845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haigh, S.; Kulon, J.; Partlow, A.; Rogers, P.; Gibson, C. Improved obstacle mitigation and localization accuracy in narrowband ultrasonic localization systems using Robcul algorithm. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 2020, 69, 2315–2324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, X.; Chen, Y.; Cao, S.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, X.; Chen, X. Acoustic indoor localization system integrating TDMA+ FDMA transmission scheme and positioning correction technique. Sensors 2019, 19, 2353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khyam, M.O.; Alam, M.J.; Lambert, A.J.; Garratt, M.A.; Pickering, M.R. High-precision OFDM-based multiple ultrasonic transducer positioning using a robust optimization approach. IEEE Sens. J. 2016, 16, 5325–5336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stojanovic, M.; Freitag, L. Multichannel detection for wideband underwater acoustic CDMA communications. IEEE J. Ocean. Eng. 2006, 31, 685–695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Toru, I.; Yasuda, Y.; Sato, S.; Izumi, S.; Kawaguchi, H. Millimeter-precision ultrasonic DSSS positioning technique with geometric triangle constraint. IEEE Sens. J. 2022, 22, 16202–16211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez-Rubio, M.C.; Hernández, Á.; Gualda-Gómez, D.; Murano, S.; Vicente-Ranera, J.; Ciudad-Fernández, F.; Nieto, R. Simulation Tool and Online Demonstrator for CDMA-Based Ultrasonic Indoor Localization Systems. Sensors 2022, 22, 1038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suzuki, A.; Kumakura, K.; Choi, Y.; Iyota, T. Accuracy of distance measurements using signal tracking of spread-spectrum ultrasonic waves with CDMA. In Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Busan, Republic of Korea, 27–30 October 2014; pp. 575–581. [Google Scholar]
- Oberdorfer, M.; Esslinger, D.; Benz, G.; Sawodny, O.; Tarin, C. Robustness enhancements of time-of-flight measurements in a CDMA ultrasonic channel of an opto-acoustic indoor positioning system using MEMS microphones. In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 7–11 September 2020; pp. 1–6. [Google Scholar]
- Oetting, J.A. comparison of modulation techniques for digital radio. IEEE Trans. Commun. 1979, 27, 1752–1762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gardner, F.A. BPSK/QPSK timing-error detector for sampled receivers. IEEE Trans. Commun. 1986, 34, 423–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Watson, B. FSK: Signals and demodulation. Watkins–Johns. Co. Tech–Notes 1980, 7, 5. [Google Scholar]
- Park, G.R.; Park, S.H.; Baek, K.R. Frequency Sweep Keying CDMA for Reducing Ultrasonic Crosstalk. Sensors 2022, 22, 4462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rapp, P.; Sawodny, O.; Taŕn, C. Opto-acoustic distance measurement using spread spectrum techniques and carrier phase measurements. In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Conference on Control Applications, Sydney, Australia, 21–23 September 2015; pp. 1461–1466. [Google Scholar]
- Esslinger, D.; Rapp, P.; Sawodny, O.; Tarin, C. High precision opto-acoustic BPSK-CDMA distance measurement for object tracking. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Miyazaki, Japan, 7–10 October 2018; pp. 2898–2905. [Google Scholar]
- Segers, L.; Van Bavegem, D.; De Winne, S.; Braeken, A.; Touhafi, A.; Steenhaut, K. An ultrasonic multiple-access ranging core based on frequency shift keying towards indoor localization. Sensors 2015, 15, 18641–18665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ren, S.; He, K.; Girshick, R.; Sun, J. Faster r-cnn: Towards real-time object detection with region proposal networks. In Proceedings of the Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Montreal, Canada, 7–12 December 2015; p. 28. [Google Scholar]
- Fan, Z.; Rudlin, J.; Asfis, G.; Meng, H. Convolution of Barker and Golay Codes for Low Voltage Ultrasonic Testing. Technologies 2019, 7, 72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ding, Z.X.; Payne, P.A. A new Golay code system for ultrasonic pulse echo measurements. Meas. Sci. Technol. 1990, 1, 158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schröder, A.; Henning, B. Signal optimization of PSK modulated gold-sequences for narrow band transducers. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium, Chicago, IL, USA, 3–6 September 2014; pp. 552–555. [Google Scholar]
- Zhenjing, Y.; Li, H.; Yanan, L. Improvement of measurement range via chaotic binary frequency shift keying excitation sequences for multichannel ultrasonic ranging system. Int. J. Control Autom. 2016, 9, 189–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakahira, K.; Okuma, S.; Kodama, T.; Furuhashi, T. The use of binary coded frequency shift keyed signals for multiple user sonar ranging. IEEE Int. Conf. Netw. Sens. Control 2004, 2, 1271–1275. [Google Scholar]
- Le Roux, J.; Kameoka, H.; Ono, N.; Sagayama, S. Fast signal reconstruction from magnitude STFT spectrogram based on spectrogram consistency. Proc. DAFx 2010, 10, 397–403. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, X.; Wang, Z.; Hua, Q.; Shang, W.L.; Luo, Q.; Yu, K. AI-empowered speed extraction via port-like videos for vehicular trajectory analysis. IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 2022, 24, 4541–4552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, K.; Zhang, X.; Ren, S.; Sun, J. Deep residual learning for image recognition. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 27–30 June 2016; pp. 770–778. [Google Scholar]
- Wong, T.T.; Yeh, P.Y. Reliable accuracy estimates from k-fold cross validation. IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng. 2019, 32, 1586–1594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Parameter | Description | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|---|
Ultrasonic transducer center frequency | 40 | kHz | |
Ultrasonic transducer frequency bandwidth | 4 | kHz | |
ADC sampling rate | 1 | MHz | |
Sweep frequency range | 8 | kHz | |
Sweep time | 2 | ms |
Code Length | Proposed | FSWK-Corr | OOK | FSK | PSK |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2 | 0.061 ± 0.019 | 0.362 ± 0.073 | 66.792 ± 29.135 | 66.268 ± 29.847 | 68.441 ± 30.362 |
4 | 0.064 ± 0.020 | 0.324 ± 0.059 | 32.235 ± 15.349 | 32.379 ± 15.894 | 33.618 ± 16.168 |
8 | 0.062 ± 0.019 | 0.326 ± 0.121 | 3.215 ± 1.548 | 4.782 ± 2.161 | 11.272 ± 4.558 |
16 | 0.064 ± 0.019 | 0.272 ± 0.075 | 2.371 ± 1.299 | 4.185 ± 2.335 | 12.185 ± 5.654 |
32 | 0.059 ± 0.018 | 0.249 ± 0.043 | 0.548 ± 0.024 | 1.335 ± 0.887 | 19.143 ± 8.548 |
64 | 0.058 ± 0.017 | 0.314 ± 0.054 | 0.064 ± 0.019 | 0.248 ± 0.052 | 21.151 ± 10.167 |
128 | 0.057 ± 0.017 | 0.291 ± 0.039 | 0.059 ± 0.018 | 0.206 ± 0.057 | 16.688 ± 7.748 |
Modulation Method | Detection Rate/Wrong Detection Rate/Non-Detection Rate | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Faster R-CNN | FSWK-corr | OOK | PSK | FSK | |
Proposed | 0.99/0.01/0.00 | 0.97/0.00/0.03 | 0.43/0.57/0.00 | 0.69/0.31/0.00 | 0.61/0.39/0.00 |
OOK | 0.01/0.01/0.99 | 0.26/0.30/0.44 | 0.94/0.06/0.00 | 0.53/0.47/0.00 | 0.44/0.56/0.00 |
PSK | 0.00/0.01/0.98 | 0.46/0.54/0.00 | 0.51/0.49/0.00 | 0.96/0.04/0.00 | 0.52/0.48/0.00 |
FSK | 0.14/0.07/0.79 | 0.31/0.42/0.27 | 0.47/0.53/0.00 | 0.42/0.58/0.00 | 0.97/0.03/0.00 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Park, G.-R.; Park, S.-H.; Baek, K.-R. Improved Frequency Sweep Keying CDMA Using Faster R-CNN for Extended Ultrasonic Crosstalk Reduction. Sensors 2023, 23, 9550. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s23239550
Park G-R, Park S-H, Baek K-R. Improved Frequency Sweep Keying CDMA Using Faster R-CNN for Extended Ultrasonic Crosstalk Reduction. Sensors. 2023; 23(23):9550. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s23239550
Chicago/Turabian StylePark, Ga-Rin, Sang-Ho Park, and Kwang-Ryul Baek. 2023. "Improved Frequency Sweep Keying CDMA Using Faster R-CNN for Extended Ultrasonic Crosstalk Reduction" Sensors 23, no. 23: 9550. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s23239550