Next Article in Journal
Evaluation of Gait Smoothness in Patients with Stroke Undergoing Rehabilitation: Comparison between Two Metrics
Next Article in Special Issue
Effects of Therapeutic Horseback-Riding Program on Social and Communication Skills in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Previous Article in Journal
Hospital Surge Capacity Preparedness in Disasters and Emergencies: Protocol for a Systematic Review
Previous Article in Special Issue
High Education and University Teaching and Learning Processes: Soft Skills
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJERPH
Volume 19
Issue 20
10.3390/ijerph192013438
ijerph-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Bullying in Adolescents Practising Sport: A Structural Model Approach

by
José Manuel Ortiz-Marcos
1,
Ana Lendínez-Turón
1,
Miguel Ángel Solano-Sánchez
2,* and
María Tomé-Fernández
3
1
Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education and Sports Sciences (Melilla Campus), University of Granada, 52005 Melilla, Spain
2
Department of Applied Economics, Faculty of Social and Legal Sciences (Melilla Campus), University of Granada, 52005 Melilla, Spain
3
Department of Research Methods and Diagnosis in Education, Faculty of Education and Sports Sciences (Melilla Campus), University of Granada, 52005 Melilla, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(20), 13438; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph192013438
Submission received: 7 September 2022 / Revised: 10 October 2022 / Accepted: 16 October 2022 / Published: 18 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Behavioral Problems in Childhood and Adolescence)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This article aims to analyse the relationship between the bullying aggressor and bullying victim profile related to practising or not practising sport in adolescents living in southern Spain. The research includes male and female participants aged between 12 and 16 years in different secondary schools in the provinces of Andalusia, Ceuta and Melilla in the period between February 2022 and June 2022. The study aims to extend the existing scientific, theoretical and empirical knowledge on the influence of playing sport or not on disruptive bullying attitudes in adolescents. To this end, two initial hypotheses were designed; the first hypothesises that bullying victim behaviours are associated with future bullying aggressor behaviours when practising sport; and the second states that victim behaviours are associated with future bullying aggressor behaviours when not practising sport. To verify them, SPSS software was used for the preliminary analysis of the scale and sociodemographic profile. Additionally, the study is based on structural equation modelling methodology and variance-based methods employing SmartPLS v3.3 software. The results show the importance of sport or physical activity to reduce the chances of carrying out bullying actions on other peers and/or classmates. Therefore, it is considered necessary to prevent bullying in the classroom by implementing sports intervention programmes in educational centres.

1. Introduction

School climate and safety are at the forefront of current educational issues. Bullying is a fragment of the school climate and safety puzzle. Bullying, either as a victim or as an aggressor, can have a lasting impact on students [1]. Such a situation aims to generate discomfort in the victim, who is unable to defend himself/herself [2]. Along the same lines, [3] understand it as a prolonged behaviour of verbal insults, social rejection, psychological physical aggression and/or intimidation by some students towards others, in which the victim is exposed to repetitive negative behaviours developed by one or several aggressors in a helplessness statement. In other words, bullying is understood as the intentional action of consciously harming or being cruel to the victims. In general, traditional forms of bullying can be divided into three categories of aggression: physical (hitting, kicking), verbal (name-calling, teasing) and social (ignoring and isolating). Behind these behaviours lies an inequality of power (physical, verbal, psychological or social) between a weak victim and a strong aggressor that leaves the victim defenseless [4].
As is reflected by [5], bullying is one of the subsets of social aggression that started to be analysed more extensively 40 years ago and, in the last decade, attracted increasing interest from researchers in various countries, which is still ongoing to this day [6]. In this context, bullying is relevant as it is produced in the educational environment, where its consequences can have a significant impact [7]. This type of disruptive behaviour continues in the 21st century after decades of trying to improve school behaviour and coexistence. Consequently, it is necessary to consider its implications for future generations [8]. These disruptive behaviours are still not disappearing, despite the efforts of the educational community, and continue to increase through new forms of bullying [9]. In this sense, it is necessary to assess the state of affairs to find the current causes that provoke this behaviour so that academic and social authorities can work together to find an early solution [10]. These disruptive behaviours not only affect students during their compulsory education stage but can also transcend to the university or adult stage [11]. Moreover, due to technological advances, these problems caused in the school context are transferred to virtual spaces [12]. In fact, studies have found a strong relationship between the two types of bullying, observing that many victims/perpetrators of traditional bullying were also victims/perpetrators of cyberbullying [13]. In this sense, Buelga [14] has suggested that cybervictimisation and cyberbullying are part of a general pattern of violence, where using electronic devices is another way of bullying the peer group.
For this reason, researchers and education professionals must understand and comprehend the prevalence of school bullying to become agents of change within their school systems [15]. Authors such as [16] define bullying as “unwanted and aggressive behaviour among school-aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance that is repeated, or has the potential to be repeated, over time”. This definition is one of the most widely used by experts in the field [17].
The main concern shown by experts studying school bullying, such as education professionals, is the myriad of possible effects it can have on the victim and the aggressor [18]. Some research has indicated that both victims and bullies are at increased risk of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts [19,20]. Other adverse effects may include poor mental health, depression and social maladjustment [21]; poor academic performance [22]; and illicit drug use and substance abuse for victims [21,23]. Refs. [6,24] have linked an environment of physical education (PE) to bullying acts. In this sense, it has been suggested that victims of school bullying tend to avoid school contexts that make them feel vulnerable, among which the authors highlight those found in physical activities [25].
However, some prevention programmes have considered the physical education factor in the role against violence in schools due to its valuable effects by favouring the externalisation of emotions and social skills improvement [26]. In this sense, it should be noted that among healthy lifestyle habits, (non-competitive) sports practice promotes responsibility and improves coexistence [27], being an excellent means of transmitting values [28] and promoting prosocial attitudes [29]. Thus, it can be applied as a means of prevention and treatment of school bullying and victimisation and carries a lower risk of developing aggressive behaviours and deviant behaviours [30]. Authors such as [31] and [32] indicate that physical activity, and more specifically sport, can have a positive impact on the body, mind, empathy and cooperation among peer groups. Therefore, the teachers of PE’s importance in fostering a positive environment during lessons has been highlighted, favouring students’ empowerment and social empathy development [33]. Following [34,35], sports coaches and PE teachers should not only help students to improve their physical fitness but also develop their social skills, improving their empowerment and growth in learning to live constructively in society [36].
Instead, other studies highlight the need and relevance of the proactive and, therefore, the non-reactive role of physical education teachers in dealing with bullying [37], thus highlighting the importance of physical education teachers assessing the environment in which classes take place to promote inclusive environments that do not encourage violence among young people. Along these lines, [38] and [39] propose various steps to develop a bullying-free environment in physical education: the previous assessment of bullying types and their frequency in physical education lessons (e.g., by surveys collecting students’ and teachers’ perceptions); the elaboration of a curriculum that vindicates proactive actions (e.g., by integrating activities requiring more collaboration and cooperation, rather than competition); and its measurement (e.g., by asking teachers, parents and students, about perceived variations in bullying experiences).
Therefore, this research aims to analyse the relationship between the bullying aggressor (BAgres) and bullying victim (BVic) profile related to practising or not practising sport in adolescents. The study aims to extend the existing scientific, theoretical and empirical knowledge on the influence of playing sport or not on disruptive bullying attitudes in people aged between 12 and 16 years.

2. Materials and Methods

As a result of the above, the following hypotheses are presented (the overall proposed model in Figure 1):
H1a. 
bullying victim (BVic) behaviours are associated with future bullying aggressor (BAgres) behaviours when playing sport.
H1b. 
bullying victim (BVic) behaviours are associated with future bullying aggressor (BAgres) behaviours when not playing sport.

2.1. Participants

Non-probability purposive sampling is used. The number of participants analysed (N = 1454) in the research is considered eligible. The number obtained is representative of the total number of adolescents stipulated (n = 944,570) from the southern and northern African Spanish centres of secondary education. This gives a confidence level of 95% and a maximum estimation error of 5% [40]. The sample selection consisted of 1454 adolescents from Andalusia and the North African cities of Ceuta and Melilla. Participants ranged in age from 12 to 16 years (M = 13.98; SD = 1.353), reflecting a similar representation of 725 males (49.9%) and 729 females (50.1%). The selected sample is taken from the different provinces of southern Spain, such as the autonomous cities Ceuta and Melilla to carry out the research, as they are the Spanish areas where the highest cases of bullying among adolescents are manifested [41,42]. The distribution of participants by province is shown in Table 1, by practising (or not) sport in Table 2.

2.2. Sample and Instrument Design

The questionnaire is divided into three blocks. The first addressed questions relating to the sociodemographic profile of the sample, such as gender, age, whether or not they had been physically active, the city where they were studying, as well as their religion, ethnicity and race. These questions were polytomous. Second, questions related to victim bullying behaviours, and third, questions regarding aggressor bullying behaviours. In these last two blocks, the questions were formulated through five-point Likert scales, being 1 not at all, 3 enough and 5 a lot. Block two, which referred to questions concerning victim bullying, consisted of 14 questions, while the third block was composed of 15 questions concerning bullying harassment.
The questionnaire was administered in educational centres in each of the provincial capitals of Andalusia and in the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla, in a period ranging from February to June 2022, to obtain a total of 1632 questionnaires. However, after an initial filtering process, the final number of valid questionnaires was 1454. The questionnaire is elaborated, taking as the basis the Spanish version of the European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (ECIPQ) [43,44], the European Bullying Intervention Project Questionnaire [45], Hall’s Cyberbullying questionnaire [46] and Bullying in Sport Questionnaire (BSQ), which were designed to measure the frequency of bullying in sport [47].
The adapted instrument is designed for adolescents between 12 and 16 years old and is structured with 52 items that evaluate three blocks (sociodemographic variables, victims and aggressors). Following theoretical indications [48], the elaboration of the questionnaire is carried out in three phases: preliminary, exploratory and final, which determined the 29 definitive items of the instrument. This questionnaire focused mainly on the variable if the students had been physically active or not and the influence it exerts on bullying.

2.3. Preliminary Reliability Analysis and Statistical Analysis

To carry out the proposed analysis, different software is employed. First, the SPSS programme is used for data preparation and to carry out the preliminary analysis of the scale and sociodemographic profile. To test the reliability of the scale used, a Cronbach’s alpha test value of 0.959 is obtained. The last is clearly above the minimum required value of 0.7, as indicated by reference authors in the field [49].
On the other hand, the study was based on structural equation modelling (SEM) methodology, specifically on variance-based methods (V-SEM), employing SmartPLS v3.3, a tool widely used in the field of social sciences [50,51,52]. The use of partial least squares methodology has several advantages, such as the fact that it does not assume any specific distribution [53] or that it can estimate structural models with small sample sizes [54,55].

3. Results

3.1. Sociodemographic Profile and Questions Raised

The mean sociodemographic profile of the sample selected corresponds to a female who is physically active, aged 13/14 years, whose religion is Christianity and of Castilian ethnicity and white race. Table 3 shows a more detailed breakdown of the sociodemographic results. Table 4 shows the descriptive statistics of the items answered by the study participants: mean and standard deviation.

3.2. Measurement Model Assessment

The measurement evaluation of the model is carried out through an individual analysis, where factor loadings are addressed and, at the level of internal consistency, through the Dijkstra-Henseler composite reliability, convergent validity through the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and discriminant validity through the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HT-MT ratio). For the existence of individual validity, factor loadings must be greater than 0.70 [56], although other authors such as [57] point out that in the initial stages of research, this minimum value must be 0.6. Regarding internal consistency, the Dijkstra-Henseler ρA) composite reliability values should be above 0.70, 0.5 for AVE and HT-MT ratio values below 0.85 [58]. Table 5 present the reliability and validity analysis of the measurement model for both the YES-SPORT and the NO-SPORT models. The obtained data show an optimal validity of the measurement model, both at the individual level (it was necessary to remove indicators that did not exceed the minimum loading threshold for both the YES-SPORT and the NO-SPORT models) and at the level of internal consistency, as indicated by the mean extracted variance and the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (Table 6).

3.3. Structural Model

Based on Section 3.2, and to test the significance of the hypotheses presented (Section 2), a bootstrapping of 10,000 subsamples [59] is developed, obtaining Student’s t and the associated p-value, as well as the confidence intervals, thus carrying out hypothesis testing from a parametric and non-parametric perspective. Table 7 shows the results obtained. Thus, the final structural models for each group are presented in Figure 2 (H1a) and Figure 3 (H1b).

4. Discussion

The results obtained show differences in bullying behaviours when they have been previously bullied. Thus, the first hypothesis (H1a), which stated that victim bullying behaviours are associated with future aggressor bullying behaviours when practising sport, has not been supported, indicating that if a sport is practised, this behaviour is not repeated. The results are associated with those obtained in previous studies [27] in which it is highlighted that, among healthy lifestyle habits, the practice of sport promotes responsibility and improves coexistence among the peer group. Along the same lines, authors such as [26] reflect that prevention programmes have considered the role of sport as an intervention against school violence since its effects are beneficial, as they favour the externalisation of emotions and improve social skills.
Sports practice becomes an excellent means for the transmission of values [28] and a promoter of prosocial attitudes [29]. Therefore, it can be applied as a means of prevention and treatment of school bullying and victimisation and carries a lower risk of developing aggressive behaviours and deviant behaviours [30]. School bullying, within this context, should be taken with particular relevance, as it should be taken into consideration that it occurs in the educational environment, where its consequences can have a more significant impact on the physical, psychological and social development of the youngest [7]. Despite preventive interventions, this type of disruptive behaviour is still present today, and after decades of trying to improve school behaviour and coexistence, it is necessary to consider the consequences it may have for future generations [8]. Along the same lines, other studies indicate that these disruptive behaviours have not disappeared, despite the efforts of the educational community, and continue to increase through new forms of bullying [9]. For this reason, and as demonstrated [60], the practice of physical-sports activities in young people and adolescents provides beneficial effects on their physical, psychological and social development. In addition, although bullying can occur in different contexts, it has been observed that the incidence of bullying in sport is lower than that observed in the school context, where it presents rates with wide ranges of incidence ranging from 10% to 48% [61]. This theory is reinforced by [62], who argued that many adolescents spend most of their free time in sports environments, which allows them to interrelate with their colleagues and fellows, offering them the opportunity to develop physically and socially, and establishing and reinforcing interpersonal relationships between students.
A study applied in schools with a high prevalence of bullying [63], showed that students who participated in a sports programme to act against bullying improved their knowledge and attitudes against bullying, and as students, after completing the programme, reported an improvement in their knowledge about bullying and a reduction in bullying behaviours, victimisation and fighting compared to students who did not participate in the study.
On the other hand, the second hypothesis (H1b), the one that hypothesised that victim behaviours are associated with future bullying aggressor behaviours when not practising sport has been supported, indicating that when not practising sport or physical activity, there is a tendency to carry out future bullying aggressor behaviours when having been a victim of aggression in the past [64]. As reflected in the literature, these behaviours must be intervened upon to avoid “the spiral of violence”, where they not only occur in the adolescent stage but can transcend to the adult stage or other higher educational stages [11]. The technological context implies that these disruptive behaviours are transferred to virtual spaces [12]. In fact, some studies show a strong relationship between both types of bullying, noting that many victims/perpetrators of traditional bullying were also victims/perpetrators of cyberbullying [13].
Evidence suggests that when a child or adolescent spends a significant amount of time in sedentary behaviours or activities, it is associated with poorer health and attitudinal outcomes [28]. According to [65], it may be directly related to the development of antisocial behaviour and aggression [66] and more negative feelings [67]. Therefore, it is important to understand how the bullying situation is related to young people’s compliance or non-compliance with physical activity recommendations and sedentary behaviour [68]. Similarly, these findings can be supported by the results of [69] where it is highlighted that young people who reported that they had bullied others or had been bullied were associated with less sport practices. However, students who reported more sporting activity contributed significantly to predicting that this type of activity decreased bullying levels among adolescents [70]. Considering previous studies, the results highlight the importance of focusing on beliefs about sport practice as an intervention strategy to improve interpersonal relationships in adolescents involved in bullying [71,72,73].

5. Conclusions

The conclusions obtained highlight and confirm the two initial hypotheses put forward in the study, indicating the importance of sport or physical activity not only in terms of a better physical situation for the individual but also, as verified in the results of the study, in reducing the possibilities of bullying other classmates and/or fellows. Therefore, it is considered necessary, as a means of preventing this type of bullying, for schools to implement sports intervention programmes for this purpose in the classroom. In the present study, it seemed to be effective in reducing victimisation in school bullying and, as in many cases, in cyberbullying, as well as aggression in bullying, although with a more cautious interpretation. Teachers could apply this type of intervention, together with specialist teachers and programmes adapted to PE content, to reduce levels of bullying while working on aspects related to students’ socio-emotional skills.
Thus, it is considered fundamental for educational institutions to raise these educational intervention programmes from the different contents of the curriculum to include training in values and prosocial aspects of learning through sport, which will encourage empathy, autonomy and help among the peer group. In this sense, pedagogical models already proven in the scientific literature could be a solution, as with, for example, Cooperative Learning, the Personal and Social Responsibility Model or interventions based on dialogical learning in schools that are transformed into learning communities. These models or their combination could reduce the negative behaviours of schoolchildren in the adolescent stage, such as aggression and the effects of victimisation, contributing to solving coexistence problems and developing a positive climate for the personal development of adolescents.
As limitations of the study, it is necessary to consider with caution the data obtained in the research, since they do not constitute a sample of the total Spanish educational context—which is only characteristic of a Southern Spain context—, nor can they be extrapolated to European contexts. Despite these limitations, the sample is considered distinctive for the south of the country, which provides a solid approach to the phenomenon of bullying and how sports practice influences this phenomenon. Moreover, this research used a quantitative methodology, which may provide limited information about the construct. For this reason, it is recommended to extend the study to research that accumulates qualitative data to provide complementary information to the current findings and to contract them.
Despite all these limitations, the results obtained in the research process are worthy and accurate for the existing scientific vacuum of research carried out in Spain on this type of bullying and how the practice of sport helps to reduce this type of disruptive behaviour in adolescents, as bullying is on the rise, specifically in educational environments, especially in those with a large cultural influx.
As a result of these limitations, it is suggested that future research related to this study replicates the analysis of the model presented with other larger samples, using longitudinal designs, measuring at two or three different moments that would provide us with more accurate data on the analysed construct. On the other hand, another type of analysis is also proposed for future studies that address this aspect from the aforementioned methodological approaches. Therefore, it is recommended that future research ad-dresses all these limitations and study similar models with experimental, qualitative or mixed methodologies, also considering other theoretical perspectives based on modern human sciences and beyond educational theories to easily interpret some of the considerable empirical research carried out recently in many countries.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, investigation and methodology, J.M.O.-M. and M.T.-F.; software, validation and formal analysis, A.L.-T.; writing—review and editing, visualisation and supervision, M.Á.S.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted following the ethical recommendations proposed in previous research in the same field and observing the principles and recommendations of the Declaration of Helsinki (1975), subsequently updated in Brazil in 2013 and by the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada (reference code: 742/CEIH/2018).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Pettersen, C.; Nunes, K.L.; Cortoni, F. The factor structure of the Aggression Questionnaire with violent offenders. Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol. 2018, 62, 1888–1905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Leifler, E.; Coco, C.; Fridell, A.; Borg, A.; Boelte, S. Social Skills Group Training for Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities in Senior High School—A Qualitative Multi-Perspective Study of Socil Validity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Ruiz-Hernández, J.A.; Moral-Zafra, E.; Llor-Esteban, B.; Jiménez-Barbero, J.A. Influence of parental styles and other psychosocial variables on the development of externalizing behaviors in adolescents: A sytematic review. Eur. J. Psychol. Appl. Leg. Context 2019, 11, 9–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Jiménez, R. Multiple Victimization (Bullying and Cyberbullying) in Primary Education in Spain from a Gender Perspective. Multidiscip. J. Educ. Res 2019, 9, 169–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Smith, P.K. Bullying: Definition, Types, Causes, Consequences and Intervention. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 2016, 10, 519–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Vveinhardt, J.; Fominiene, V.B. Bullying Trends Inside Sport: When Organized Sport Does Not Attract but Intimidates. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 2037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Idsoe, T.; Vaillancourt, T.; Dyregrov, A.; Hagen, K.A.; Ogden, T.; Nærde, A. Bullying victimization and trauma. Front. Psychiatry 2021, 11, 480353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Barratt-Pugh, L.G.; Krestelica, D. Bullying in higher education: Culture change requires more than policy. Perspect. Policy Pract. High. Educ. 2019, 23, 109–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bully, P.; Jaureguizar, J.; Bernard, E.; Redondo, I. Relationship between parental socialization, emotional symptoms, and academic performance during adolescence: The influence of parents’ and teenagers’ gender. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Gaffney, H.; Farrington, D.P.; Ttofi, M.M. Examining the effectiveness of school-bullying intervention programs globally: A meta-analysis. Int. J. Bullying Prev. 2019, 1, 14–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Gómez-Galán, J.; Lázaro-Pérez, C.; Martínez-López, J.Á. Trajectories of Victimization and Bullying at University: Prevention for A Healthy and Sustainable Educational Environment. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Tristão, L.A.; Iossi Silva, M.A.; de Oliveira, W.A.; dos Santos, D.; da Silva, J.L. Bullying y cyberbullying: Intervenciones realizadas en el contexto escolar. Rev. Psicol. 2022, 40, 1047–1073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Yang, C.; Chen, C.; Lin, X.; Chan, M.-K. School-wide social emotional learning and cyberbullying victimization among middle and high school students: Moderating role of school climate. Sch. Psychol. 2021, 36, 75–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Buelga, S.; Cava, M.J.; Torralba, M.E. Cyberbullying aggressors among Spanish secondary education students: An exploratory study. Interact. Technol. Smart Educ. 2015, 12, 100–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. DeSmet, A.; Rodelli, M.; Walrave, M.; Soenens, B.; Cardon, G.; De Bourdeaudhuij, I. Cyberbullying and traditional bullying involvement among heterosexual and non-heterosexual adolescents, and their associations with age and gender. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2018, 83, 254–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Murphy, B.A.; Lilienfeld, S.O. Are self-report cognitive empathy ratings valid proxies for cognitive empathy ability? Negligible meta-analytic relations with behavioral task performance. Psychol. Assess. 2019, 31, 1062–1072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Esteban, A.N.P.; Contreras, C.C.T.; Rodríguez, S.P.O.; de Aldana, M.S.C.; Bueno, L.M.D.; de Silva, B.A.D.N. Bullying in adolescents: Role, type of violence and determinants. Rev. Esc. Enferm. USP 2020, 54, e03625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Reisen, A.; Viana, M.C.; dos Santos-Neto, E.T. Bullying among adolescents: Are the victims also perpetrators? Braz. J. Psychiatry 2019, 41, 518–529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Cuesta, I.; Montesó-Curto, P.; Metzler Sawin, E.; Jiménez-Herrera, M.; Puig-Llobet, M.; Seabra, P.; Toussaint, L. Risk factors for teen suicide and bullying: An international integrative review. Int. J. Nurs. Pract. 2021, 27, e12930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Moore, S.E.; Norman, R.E.; Suetani, S.; Thomas, H.J.; Sly, P.D.; Scott, J.G. Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World J. Psychiatry 2017, 7, 60–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Whale, K.; Cramer, H.; Joinson, C. Left behind and left out: The impact of the school environment on young people with continence problems. Br. J. Health Psychol. 2018, 23, 253–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  22. Doumas, D.M.; Midgett, A.; Johnston, A.D. Substance use and bullying victimization among middle and high school students: Is positive school climate a protective factor? J. Addict. Offender Couns. 2017, 38, 2–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Hassan, A.R.; Lam, M.H.S.; Ku, S.; Li, W.H.C.; Lee, K.Y.; Ho, E.; Flint, S.W.; Wo, A.S. The reasons of dropout of sport in Hong Kong school athletes. Health Psychol. Res. 2017, 5, 6766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  24. Stefaniuk, L.; Bridel, W. Anti-bullying policies in Canadian sport: An absent presence. J. Park Recreat. Adm. 2018, 36, 160–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Palomino-Devia, C.; Reyes-Oyola, F.A.; Sánchez-Oliver, A. Niveles de actividad física, calidad de vida relacionada con la salud, autoconcepto físico e índice de masa corporal: Un estudio en escolares colombianos. Biomédica 2018, 38, 224–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Shadmanfaat, S.M.; Howell, C.J.; Muniz, C.N.; Cochran, J.K.; Kabiri, S.; Fontaine, E.M. Cyberbullying perpetration: An empirical test of social learning theory in Iran. Deviant Behav. 2019, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Zurita-Ortega, F.; Salvador-Pérez, F.; Knox, E.; Gámiz-Sánchez, V.M.; Chacón, R.; Rodríguez-Fernández, S.; Muros-Molina, J.J. Physical activity and health-related quality of life in schoolchildren: Structural equations analysis. An. De Psicol. 2018, 34, 385–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Benitez-Sillero, J.D.; Corredor-Corredor, D.; Córdoba-Alcaide, F.; Calmaestra, J. Intervention programme to prevent bullying in adolescents in physical education classes (PREBULLPE): A quasi-experimental study. Phys. Educ. Sport Pedagog. 2020, 26, 36–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Matjasko, J.L.; Holland, K.M.; Holt, M.K.; Espelage, D.L.; Koenig, B.W. All Things in Moderation? Threshold Effects in Adolescent Extracurricular Participation Intensity and Behavioral Problems. J. Sch. Health 2019, 89, 79–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Zafra, M.S.; Zagalaz, J.C.; Moreno, D.S.; Sánchez, M.L.Z. Analysis of the relationship between self-concept and school violence in the last school years of Primary Education. Publicaciones 2019, 49, 39–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Woodforde., J.; Alsop, T.; Salmon, J.; Gomersall, S. Michalis Stylianou Effects of school-based before-school physical activity programmes on children’s physical activity levels, health and learning-related outcomes: Asystematic review. Br. J. Sport. Med. 2022, 56, 740–754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Weiss, M.R.; Kipp, L.E.; Phillips Reichter, A.; Espinoza, S.M.; Bolter, N.D. Girls on the Run: Impact of a Physical Activity Youth Development Program on Psychosocial and Behavioral Outcomes. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 2019, 31, 330–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  33. Montero-Carretero, C.; Barbado, D.; Cervelló, E. Predicting Bullying through Motivation and Teaching Styles in Physical Education. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  34. Bartholomew, K.J.; Ntoumanis, N.; Mouratidis, A.; Katartzi, E.; Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C.; Vlachopoulos, S. Beware of your teaching style: A school-year long investigation of controlling teaching and student motivational experiences. Learn. Instr. 2018, 53, 50–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Mierzwinski, M.; Velija, P. Bullying in male physical education: A figurational sociological analysis. Sport Soc. 2020, 23, 1630–1644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Ball, L.; Lieberman, L.; Haibach-Beach, P.; Perreault, M.; Tirone, K. Bullying in physical education of children and youth with visual impairments: A systematic review. Br. J. Vis. Impair. 2022, 40, 513–529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Bruijns, B.A.; Johnson, A.M.; Tucker, P. Content development for a physical activity and sedentary behaviour e-learning module for early childhood education students: A Delphi study. BMC Public Health 2020, 20, 1600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Santurio, J.I.M.; Fernández-Río, J.; Estrada, J.A.C.; Gonzalez-Villora, S. Connections between bullying victimization and satisfaction/frustration of adolescents’ basic psychological. Rev. De Psicodidáctica 2020, 25, 119–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Wilhelmsen, T.; Sørensen, M.S.; Seippel, O.; Block, M.E. Parental satisfaction with inclusion in physical education. Int. J. Incl. Educ. 2021, 25, 1061–1078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Bird, J.P.; Woodworth, B.K.; Fuller, R.A.; Shaw, J.D. Uncertainty in population estimates: A meta-analysis for petrels. Ecol. Solut. Evid. 2021, 2, e12077. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Beltrán-Catalán, M.; Zych, I.; Ortega-Ruíz, R.; Llorent, V.J. Victimisation through bullying and cyberbullying: Emotional intelligence, severity of victimisation and technology use in different types of victims. Psicothema 2018, 30, 183–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Kellij, S.; Gerine, M.A.; Lodder, G.M.A.; van den Bedem, N.; Güroğlu, B.; Veenstra, R. The Social Cognitions of Victims of Bullying: A Systematic Review. Adolesc. Res. Rev. 2022, 7, 287–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Del Rey, R.; Casas, J.A.; Ortega-Ruiz, R.; Schultze-Krumbholz, A.; Scheithauer, H.; Smith, P.; Thompson, F.; Barkoukis, V.; Tsorbatzoudis, H.; Brighi, A.; et al. Structural validation and cross-cultural robustness of the European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2015, 50, 141–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Romera, E.M.; Cano, J.J.; García, C.; Ortega, R. Cyberbullying: Social Competence, Motivation and Peer Relationships. Comunicar 2016, 48, 71–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Herrera-López, M.; Romera, E.; Ortega-Ruiz, R. Bullying y cyberbullying en Colombia; coocurrencia en adolescentes escolarizados. Rev. Latinoam. Psicol. 2017, 49, 163–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Hall, W. Initial development and validation of the Bullyharm: The bullying, harassment, and aggression receipt measure. Psych. Sch. 2016, 53, 984–1000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  47. Evans, M.B.; Adler, A.L.; MacDonald, D.J.; Côté, J. Bullying Victimization and Perpetration Among Adolescent Sport Teammates. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 2016, 28, 296–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Humphrey-Murto, S.; Timothy, J.W.; Varpio, L. Using consensus group methods such as Delphi and Nominal Group in medical education research. Med. Educ. 2017, 51, 994–995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Nunnally, J.C.; Bernstein, I.H. Psychometric Theory, 3rd ed.; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
  50. Henseler, J.; Hubona, G.; Ray, P.A. Using PLS path modeling in new technology research: Updated guidelines. Ind. Manag. Data Syst. 2016, 116, 2–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Hair, J.F.; Ringle, C.M.; Sarstedt, M. PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. J. Mark. Theory Pract. 2011, 19, 137–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. do Valle, P.O.; Assaker, G. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling in Tourism Research: A Review of Past Research and Recommendations for Future Applications. J. Travel Res. 2016, 55, 695–708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Chin, W.W. How to write up and report PLS analyses. In Handbook of Partial Least Squares: Concepts, Methods and Applications; Esposito Vinzi, V., Chin, W.W., Henseler, J., Wang, H., Eds.; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2010; pp. 655–690. [Google Scholar]
  54. Chin, W.W.; Newsted, P.R. Structural equation modeling analysis with small samples using partial least squares. In Statistical Strategies for Small Samples Research; Hoyle, R., Ed.; Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1999; pp. 307–341. [Google Scholar]
  55. Reinartz, W.; Haenlein, M.; Henseler, J. An empirical comparison of the efficacy of covariance-based and variance-based (SEM). Int. J. Res. Mark. 2009, 26, 332–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  56. Ali, F.; Rasoolimanesh, S.M.; Sarstedt, M.; Ringle, C.; Ryu, K. An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) in hospitality research. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 2018, 30, 514–538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Barclay, D.; Higgins, C.; Thompson, R. The partial least squares (PLS) approach to causal modelling: Personal computer adoption and use as an illustration. (Special Issue on Research Methodology). Technol. Stud. 1995, 2, 285–309. [Google Scholar]
  58. Kline, R.B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modelling, 3rd ed.; Guildford: New York, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  59. Streukens, S.; Leroi-Werelds, S. Bootstrapping and PLS-SEM: A step-by-step guide to get more out of your bootstrap results. Eur. Manag. J. 2016, 34, 618–632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Flores, G.; Prat, M.; Ventura, C.; Ríos, X. ’I was always made fun of for being fat’: First-hand accounts of bullying in children’s football. Phys. Educ. Sport Pedagog. 2021, 26, 549–561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Mishna, F.; Kerr, G.; McInroy, L.B.; MacPherson, E. Student athletes’ experiences of bullying in intercollegiate sport. J. Study Sport. Athl. Educ. 2019, 13, 53–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Nery, M.; Neto, C.; Rosado, A.; Smith, P.K. Bullying in youth sport training: A nationwide exploratory and descriptive research in Portugal. Eur. J. Dev. Psychol. 2019, 16, 447–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Greif, J.; Holt, K.; Oblath, R.; Robinson, E.; Storey, K.; Merrin, G.J. Engaging Professional Sports to Reduce Bullying: An Evaluation of the Boston vs. Bullies Program. J. Sch. Violence 2020, 19, 389–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Saunders, T.J.; Vallance, J.K. Screen time and health indicators among children and youth: Current evidence, limitations and future directions. Appl. Health Econ. Health Policy 2017, 15, 323–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Méndez, I.; Ruiz-Esteban, C.; Ortega, E. Impact of the physical activity on bullying. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 1520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Enes, A.; Uğraş, S. Bullying in Physical Education: Awareness of Physical Education Teachers. Phys. Cult. Sport, Stud. Res. 2022, 95, 40–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Rodríguez-Álvarez, J.M.; Jiménez, S.Y.; Olivas, R.N. Relationship of social integration and leisure experiences with bullying in primary school students. Pedagog. Soc. Rev. Interuniv. 2021, 39, 167–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Hess, M.; Schultze-Krumbholz, A.; Scheithauer, H. Effects of the Preventive Intervention Program “Media Heroes” on the Association Between Traditional and Cyberbullying and Internalizing Problems. Kindh. Und Entwickl. 2020, 29, 92–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Wen, Y.; Zhu, X.; Haegele, J.A.; Yu, F. Mental Health, Bullying, and Victimization among Chinese Adolescents. Children 2022, 9, 240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Ríos, X.; Ventura, C. Bullying in Youth Sport: Knowledge and Prevention Strategies of Coaches. Apunt. Educ. Fis. Deport. 2022, 148, 62–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Merrill, R.M.; Hanson, C.L. Risk and protective factors associated with being bullied on school property compared with cyberbullied. BMC Public Health 2016, 16, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  72. Salmon, S.; Turner, S.; Taillieu, T.; Fortier, J.; Afifi, T.O. Bullying victimization experiences among middle and high school adolescents: Traditional bullying, discriminatory harassment, and cybervictimization. J. Adolesc. 2018, 63, 29–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Vveinhardt, J.; Fominiene, V.B.; Jeseviciute-Ufartiene, L. Bullying and Harassment as Antisocial Behaviours: Socio-Economic Aspects of Their Impact Assessment. Inz. Ekon.-Ing. Económica 2018, 29, 548–558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ijerph 19 13438 g001 550
Figure 1. Proposed model.
Figure 1. Proposed model.
Ijerph 19 13438 g001
Ijerph 19 13438 g002 550
Figure 2. YES−SPORT Final Structural Model. Note: NS = not supported.
Figure 2. YES−SPORT Final Structural Model. Note: NS = not supported.
Ijerph 19 13438 g002
Ijerph 19 13438 g003 550
Figure 3. Final structural model NO-SPORT. Note: * p < 0.05.
Figure 3. Final structural model NO-SPORT. Note: * p < 0.05.
Ijerph 19 13438 g003
Table
Table 1. Distribution of participants by city.
Table 1. Distribution of participants by city.
CityParticipants’ No.%
Granada1077.4
Málaga1319.0
Almería1117.6
Jaén16111.1
Córdoba19313.3
Sevilla20514.1
Cádiz1178.0
Huelva896.1
Melilla17211.8
Ceuta16811.6
Total1454100
Table
Table 2. Participants practising or not practising sport.
Table 2. Participants practising or not practising sport.
Practising SportParticipants%
No1439.8
Yes131190.2
Total1454100
Table
Table 3. Sociodemographic profile.
Table 3. Sociodemographic profile.
Variable%Variable%Variable%
Gender
Male
Female
49.9
50.1		Physical activity
Yes
No
90.2
9.8		Religion
Christianity
Judaism
Islam
Taoism
Buddhism
Other
70.2
5.4
4.1
1.1
0.3
18.8
Age
12 years old
13 years old
14 years old
15 years old
16 years old
16.7
23.8
23.2
17.6
18.7		City
Granada
Málaga
Almería
Jaén
Córdoba
Seville
Cádiz
Huelva
Melilla
Ceuta
7.4
9.0
7.6
11.1
13.3
14.1
8.0
6.1
11.8
11.6		Ethnicity
Castilian
Mongolian
Gypsy
Armenian
Celtic
Other
65.7
13.5
3.2
1.2
0.6
16.0
Race
White
Indigenous
African
Asian
Nordic
Other
37.3
20.8
4.4
1.4
1.0
5.2
Table
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of the items.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of the items.
Item CodeQuestionMeanStd. Dev.
BVic1Someone has called me names or insulted me because I have a different skin colour.1.461.027
BVic2Someone has called me names or insulted me because I am of a different ethnicity or religion.1.410.945
BVic3Made racist comments about my race, ethnicity or religion.1.481.026
BVic4Someone has told other classmates lies about my race, ethnicity or religion.1.390.947
BVic5I have been threatened because of my religious or ethnic tradition.1.390.964
BVic6They have promoted fear about the customs of my country or my ethnicity or religion.1.411.001
BVic7Someone has made fun of my family and me because of our traditions and customs.1.421.017
BVic8Someone has humiliated me because of my race.1.411.014
BVic9My group’s religious or ethnic activity has been ridiculed.1.411.006
BVic10I have been excluded or ignored because I am of a different race, religion or ethnicity from my peers.1.390.983
BVic11I have been hit for being different from them (skin colour, hair, dress, tradition, religion).1.390.986
BVic12They imitated my speech to make fun of my language.1.370.949
BVic13I have been told that my race, religion or ethnicity should be exterminated.1.421.010
BVic14I have been made fun of for wearing a different dress or garment from my peers.1.380.984
BAgres1I have called someone a bad word or insulted another classmate for having a different skin colour.1.400.959
BAgres2I have spoken abusive words or insulted other classmates because they are of a different ethnicity or religion.1.390.985
BAgres3I have made racist comments about other races, ethnicities or religions.1.491.007
BAgres4I have told other colleagues lies about other races, ethnicities or religions.1.360.976
BAgres5I have threatened other religious or ethnic traditions through messages.1.170.608
BAgres6I have attempted to create hatred towards other racial, ethnic or religious groups.1.130.532
BAgres7I have ridiculed religious or ethnic traditions other than my own.1.160.608
BAgres8I have mocked the traditions and customs of other families.1.140.595
BAgres9I have humiliated the religious or ethnic traditions of other groups.1.150.626
BAgres10I have ridiculed the religious or ethnic activity of another group.1.120.579
BAgres11I have excluded or ignored others because they are of a different race or belong to a different religion or ethnicity from the rest of my classmates.1.110.554
BAgres12I have hit classmates because they are different from me (skin colour, hair, clothing, tradition, religion).1.140.981
BAgres13I have imitated my partner’s speech to make fun of his or her language.1.120.573
BAgres14I have threatened that the race, religion or ethnicity of other classmates should be exterminated.1.130.590
BAgres15I have made fun of other classmates for wearing a different dress or garment than the rest of my classmates.1.130.585
Table
Table 5. Reliability and validity analysis of the measurement model (YES-SPORT Model).
Table 5. Reliability and validity analysis of the measurement model (YES-SPORT Model).
YES-SPORT MODELNON-SPORT MODEL
Loads_AA.V.E. Loads_AA.V.E.
Bullying victim (BVic) 0.9520.606Bullying victim (BVic) 0.9190.559
BVic10.704 BVic30.607
BVic20.769 BVic60.856
BVic30.772 BVic70.811
BVic50.750 BVic90.740
BVic60.805 BVic100.769
BVic70.858 BVic110.707
BVic80.868 BVic120.758
BVic90.856 BVic130.748
BVic100.817 BVic140.709
BVic110.769 Bullying aggressor (BAgres) 0.9520.587
BVic120.760 BAgres20.783
BVic130.665 BAgres30.651
BVic140.694 BAgres40.663
Bullying aggressor (BAgres) 0.9630.655BAgres50.737
BAgres10.735 BAgres60.758
BAgres20.707 BAgres70.873
BAgres30.776 BAgres80.670
BAgres40.689 BAgres90.742
BAgres60.796 BAgres100.778
BAgres70.903 BAgres110.838
BAgres80.781 BAgres120.895
BAgres90.902 BAgres130.792
BAgres100.944 BAgres140.739
BAgres110.733 BAgres150.733
BAgres120.873
BAgres130.810
BAgres140.691
BAgres150.931
Table
Table 6. Discriminant validity. Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio.
Table 6. Discriminant validity. Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio.
Bullying Aggressor (BAgres)
Bullying Victim (BVic)YES-SPORT[0.094; 0.248]
NO-SPORT[0.130; 0.470]
Notes: Brackets are the 95% confidence interval (two-tailed) with 5000 resamples-Practice sport (YES-SPORT) and No practice sport (NO-SPORT).
Table
Table 7. Hypothesis testing.
Table 7. Hypothesis testing.
Original Sampletp-Value95% CI
2.5%97.5%
H1aBVic → BAgres−0.160 NS0.7990.424−0.2560.436
H1bBVic → BAgres0.285 *2.4900.0130.2190.653
Notes: * p < 0.05; (10,000; two-tailed); t (9999; 0.05) = 1.96; t (9999; 0.01) = 2.57; t (9999; 0.001) = 3.29. NS = not supported.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Ortiz-Marcos, J.M.; Lendínez-Turón, A.; Solano-Sánchez, M.Á.; Tomé-Fernández, M. Bullying in Adolescents Practising Sport: A Structural Model Approach. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 13438. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph192013438

AMA Style

Ortiz-Marcos JM, Lendínez-Turón A, Solano-Sánchez MÁ, Tomé-Fernández M. Bullying in Adolescents Practising Sport: A Structural Model Approach. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(20):13438. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph192013438

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ortiz-Marcos, José Manuel, Ana Lendínez-Turón, Miguel Ángel Solano-Sánchez, and María Tomé-Fernández. 2022. "Bullying in Adolescents Practising Sport: A Structural Model Approach" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 20: 13438. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph192013438

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop