Phase-Change Materials in Hydronic Heating and Cooling Systems: A Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction—The Use of Energy Storage in Buildings
2. Review of Thermal Storages with PCM in Building’s Hydronic Systems
2.1. Space Cooling
Systems with HP
2.2. Space Heating
2.2.1. System with HP
2.2.2. System with HP and Solar Collectors
2.2.3. System with HP and PVT Panels
2.2.4. System with Solar Collectors
2.2.5. System with Electrical Heating
2.3. Space Cooling and Heating
2.4. Indirect Electrical Storage for Space Cooling and Heating
3. Maturity of PCM for Thermal Storage
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
Temperature (K) | |
Temperature difference (K) | |
Specific heat (J/kgK) | |
Latent heat of fusion (J/kg) | |
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) | |
Density (kg/m3) | |
Acronyms | |
COP | Coefficient of performance |
DHW | Domestic hot water |
DC | Direct current |
EASE | European association for storage of energy |
EER | Energy efficiency ratio |
EES | Electrical energy storage |
GSHP | Ground-source heat pump |
HEART | Holistic energy and architectural retrofit toolkit |
HP | Heat pump |
HPWH | Heat pump water heater |
HTF | Heat transfer fluid |
IDX-SAHP | Indirect solar assisted heat pump |
KPI | Key performance indicators |
LTS | Latent thermal storage |
PCM | Phase-change material |
PV | Photovoltaics |
PVT | Photovoltaic/thermal |
RES | Renewable energy sources |
SAT | Sodium Acetate Trihydrate |
SF | Solar fraction |
SPF | Seasonal performance factor |
STS | Sensible thermal storage |
TRL | Technology readiness level |
TS | Thermal storage |
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---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PCM thermal energy storage tanks in heat pump system for space cooling [46] | Water/water heat pump | Plates encapsulation Salt hydrate (S10) Melting point: 10 °C | h = 155 kJ/kg (228 kJ/L) cp = 1.9 kJ/kgK λ = 0.43 W/mK ρ = 1470 kg/m3 | Stored: 2.79 kWh (water) 3.88 kWh (LTS) Released: 2.32 (water) 2.61 kWh (LTS) | 56 L water + 48 L PCM (46%) | 25 kWh/m3 (PCM) 22 kWh/m3 (water) | / |
Improvement of a heat pump based HVAC system with PCM thermal storage for cold accumulation and heat dissipation [47] | Water/water heat pump | FlatICE panels Salt hydrate (S10) Melting point: 10 °C (cold) and 27 °C (heat) | h = 183 kJ/kg (280 kJ/L) cp = 2.2 kJ/kgK λ = 0.54 W/mK ρ = 1530 kg/m3 | / | / | / | / |
Free cooling potential of a PCM-based heat exchanger coupled with a novel HVAC system for simultaneous heating and cooling of buildings [48] | Reversible air-to-water heat pump with dry cooler | PCM-based heat exchanger Plant-based PCM Melting point: 18 °C | h = 192 kJ/kg cp = 1.47–1.74 kJ/kgK λ = 0.15–0.25 W/mK ρ = 860–950 kg/m3 | 1.1 MWh | 21 m3 | 52 kWh/m3 | SPF = 5.6 (HP + LTS) |
Geocooling with integrated PCM thermal energy storage in a commercial building [49] | Geocooling | Spherical capsules Mix of water & nucleating agents Melting point: 0 °C | h = 333 kJ/kg cp = 1.47–1.74 kJ/kgK λ = 0.56–2.2 W/mK ρ = 1000–917 kg/m3 | Stored: 27 kWh (one unit) | 200 L water + 300 L PCM (60%) -one unit | 54 kWh/m3 | SPF1 = 3.0 (base) SPF2 = 5.0 (no PCM) SPF3 = 5.1 (with PCM) 41% and 2% increase |
Energy saving performance assessment and lessons learned from the operation of an active PCMs system in a multi-story building in Melbourne [50] | Adiabatic cooler | 5120 FlatICE PCM panels Salt hydrate Melting point: 15 °C | h = 160 kJ/kg cp = 1.9 kJ/kgK λ = 0.43 W/mK ρ = 1510 kg/m3 | Total: 1500 kWh (max. in winter) Latent: 1307 kWh (theoretically) | 20 m3 water + 20 m3 PCM (50%) | 36 kWh/m3 | / |
Heating | Technology | Encapsulation/PCM Type | Material Properties | Accumulation | Size | Energy Density | COP |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experimental research of an air-source heat pump water heater using water-PCM for heat storage [51] | Air-source HPWH | Around condenser coil Paraffin (RT44HC) Melting point: 43 °C | h = 255 kJ/kg λ = 0.2 W/mK ρ = 760–860 kg/m3 | Water: 6.4 kWh LTS: 7.3 kWh (14% increase) | 138 L water + 11 L PCM (7.5%) | 49 kWh/m3 ΔT = 40 K | 3.74 (HP) 5% increase |
Effects of latent heat storage and controls on stability and performance of a solar assisted heat pump system for domestic hot water production [52] | Water-source HP (DHW) | PCM heat exchanger tank Paraffin Melting point: 17 °C | h = 260 kJ/kg λ = 0.2 W/mK cp = 2 kJ/kgK ρ = 770–880 kg/m3 | 77.90 kWh (test day) | 300 L water + 40 L PCM (12%) | / | System COP: 4.99 (sunny) 4.8 (cloudy) 6%–14% increase |
Field study of a novel solar-assisted dual-source multifunctional heat pump [53] | Air-source HP (DHW) | Water DHW: 48–58 °C Tank: 22–38 °C | cp = 4.18 kJ/kgK λ = 0.64 W/mK ρ(53 °C) = 987 kg/m3 ρ(30 °C) = 995 kg/m3 | DHW: 4 kWh | 186 L (DHW) + 300 L (tank) | DHW: 21.5 kWh/m3 | Monthly: 3.75 (max) 2.47 (min) 34% increase |
Thermal performance assessment and improvement of a solar domestic hot water tank with PCM in the mantle [55] | Solar water tank—DHW | PCM in a mantle, Sodium Acetate Trihydrate (SAT) Melting point: 58 °C | h = 262 kJ/kg λ = 0.54 W/mK cp = 3.22 kJ/kgK ρ = 1450 kg/m3 | Total: 12 kWh PCM: 3.8 kWh | 148 L water + 23 L PCM (13.5%) | Water:12 kWh/m3 LTS: 92 kWh/m3 T = 87–40 °C | / |
Study on the performance of heat storage and heat release of water storage tank with PCMs [56] | Solar water tank—DHW | Embedded containers SAT (58 °C), Lauric acid (44 °C) | h = 262 & 180 kJ/kg λ = 0.54 W/mK cp = 3.22 & 2.5 kJ/kgK ρ = 1450 & 880 kg/m3 | Water: 5.9 kWh LTS: 8.3 kWh 39.2% increase | 110 L water + 30 L PCM (19%) | 57 kWh/m3 T = 70–40 °C | / |
Phase-change material for enhancing solar water heater, an experimental approach [57] | Solar water tank—DHW | 180 spherical capsules Paraffin Melting point: 55 °C | h = 187 kJ/kg λ = 0.2 W/mK cp = 2–2.15 kJ/kgK ρ = 790–910 kg/m3 | 25% increase | Approx.: 6.7 L water + 2.8 L PCM (30–40%) | / | / |
Modeling and experimental study of latent heat thermal energy storage with encapsulated PCMs for solar thermal applications [58] | Solar water tank | 209 spherical capsules Organic material A164 Melting point: 169 °C | h = 250 kJ/kg λ = 0.45 W/mK cp = 2.01 kJ/kgK ρ = 1500 kg/m3 | 0.5 kWh | 5.7 L water + 2.5 L PCM (31%) | 61 kWh/m3 T = 185–120 °C | / |
A solar combi-system utilizing stable supercooling of sodium acetate trihydrate for heat storage: Numerical performance investigation [59] | Solar water tank—DHW | Compact storage tank Sodium Acetate Trihydrate Melting point: 58 °C | h = 180–200 kJ/kg λ = 2–5 W/mK cp = 2.5 kJ/kgK ρ = 1350–1400 kg/m3 | 4 × 2.6 kWh = 10.4 kWh | 735 L water + 4 × 150 L PCM (82%) | 17.3 kWh/m3 T = 58–45 °C | / |
Thermal analysis of including phase-change material in a domestic hot water cylinder [61] | Electrical hot water cylinder | 57 PVC tubes Salt hydrate TH58 Melting point: 58 °C | h = 185 kJ/kg λ = 0.54–1.09 W/mK cp = 2.88–4.19 kJ/kgK ρ = 1290–1400 kg/m3 | Water-only: 11.9 kWh LTS: 14.3 kWh (20% increase) | 141 L water + 39 L PCM (22%) | 79.6 kWh/m3 T = 70–15 °C | / |
Heating and Cooling | Technology | Encapsulation/PCM | Material Properties | Accumulation | Size | Energy Density | COP |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Evaluation of a novel solar driven sorption cooling/heating system integrated with PCM storage compartment [65] | Sorption cooling LiCl-H2O | Paraffin: RT27 (heat), RT11(cold) Melting point:27 °C (heat), 11 °C (cold) | h = 149 (RT27) & 160 (RT11) kJ/kg λ = 0.2 W/mK cp= 2 kJ/kgK ρ = 760–800 kg/m3 (RT27) ρ = 770–880 kg/m3 (RT11) | 331 Wh (cooling) 425 Wh (heating) 756 Wh (overall) | 2 × 0.1 m3 | Cold: 3.3 kWh/m3 (ΔT = 20–9 °C) Heat: 4.3 kWh/m3 (T = 27–20 °C) | Cooling: 0.36 Heating: 0.42 |
Energetic and exergetic performance evaluation of a solar cooling and heating system assisted with thermal storage [66] | Adsorption chiller + radiation heating | Shell and tube heat exchanger Paraffin Melting point: 62 °C | h = 200 kJ/kg λ = 0.162–0.35 W/mK cp = 2.05–2.26 kJ/kgK ρ = 825–880 kg/m3 | 36 kWh | LTS: 0.5 m3 Water: 1.1 m3 | 72 kWh/m3 (T = 80–55 °C) | Annual system en. efficiency: No TS: 24.2%, Water: 31.9%, LTS: 33.4% |
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Koželj, R.; Osterman, E.; Leonforte, F.; Del Pero, C.; Miglioli, A.; Zavrl, E.; Stropnik, R.; Aste, N.; Stritih, U. Phase-Change Materials in Hydronic Heating and Cooling Systems: A Literature Review. Materials 2020, 13, 2971. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13132971
Koželj R, Osterman E, Leonforte F, Del Pero C, Miglioli A, Zavrl E, Stropnik R, Aste N, Stritih U. Phase-Change Materials in Hydronic Heating and Cooling Systems: A Literature Review. Materials. 2020; 13(13):2971. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13132971
Chicago/Turabian StyleKoželj, Rok, Eneja Osterman, Fabrizio Leonforte, Claudio Del Pero, Alessandro Miglioli, Eva Zavrl, Rok Stropnik, Niccolò Aste, and Uroš Stritih. 2020. "Phase-Change Materials in Hydronic Heating and Cooling Systems: A Literature Review" Materials 13, no. 13: 2971. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13132971