Changes in the Concentrations of Trace Elements and Supply of Nutrients to Silver Fir (Abies alba Mill.) Needles as a Bioindicator of Industrial Pressure over the Past 30 Years in Świętokrzyski National Park (Southern Poland)
1
Institute of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, ul. Uniwersytecka 7, 25-406 Kielce, Poland
2
Department of Ecology and Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, University of Agriculture in Kraków, Al. 29 Listopada 46, 31-425 Krakow, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2022, 13(5), 718; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050718
Submission received: 2 March 2022
/
Revised: 6 April 2022
/
Accepted: 1 May 2022
/
Published: 3 May 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Response and Feedback of Forest Vegetation to Global Change)
Abstract
:The aim of this study was to identify changes in the concentrations of elements in fir assimilation organs over the past 30 years in order to assess fir reactions as a bioindicator of changes in the functioning of Central European fir forest ecosystems under conditions of reduced anthropogenic emissions. In particular, we selected the example of the Świętokrzyskie Mountains (Świętokrzyski National Park located in the northern range of Abies alba Mill.). The research was carried out in the “Łysica-Święty Krzyż” area under strict protection, including multi-species and uneven-aged tree stands with a complex structure, dominance of beech and fir, and numerous admixtures of other tree species. A decrease in the concentrations of pollutants in fir needles indicates a significant reduction in pressure on the environment and an improvement in the conditions of ecosystems in 2018 compared with those in 1986. In the period of more than 30 years between the sets of research, the concentrations of lead in fir needles decreased threefold and those of sulfur decreased twofold. A significant increase in the concentrations of cadmium, copper, manganese, and zinc in the three-year-old needles showed that they are a good indicator of environmental pollution with trace elements and may be used in biomonitoring.
1. Introduction
The rate and type of industrial pollutants depend on the type of industry and technology used. The cement and lime industry is one of the largest emitters of dust into the air. Dusts generated due to industrial emissions settle on the surface of leaves, leading to the clogging of stomata and, thus, to the disturbance of photosynthesis and transpiration [1,2]. As a result of the adverse effects of dust, trees reduce the number of their leaves, make the shape of their crowns thin and deformed, and limit growth opportunities [3].
A significant problem in those countries that base their energy economy on the extraction and processing of fossil fuels, despite the applied environmentally friendly limitations and technological solutions, is the pollution of the environment with sulfur oxides [4,5]. In Central and Eastern Europe, the main factor influencing air pollution is the combustion of solid fuels, mainly coal, which may contain up to 3% mineral sulfur [6,7,8]. As a result of the reaction of gases in the air, mainly sulfur oxides, acid rain occurs, which adversely affects forests by damaging their leaves, acidifying soils, and reducing the availability of nutrients [9,10]. Acid rain increases the leaching of nutrients from the soil profile, especially alkaline calcium and magnesium cations. The process of soil acidification increases the mobility of trace elements that adversely affect the biogeochemical cycles of plants [11,12].
The concentrations of sulfur oxides and heavy metals in plant tissues are an important indicator of anthropopressure. Fir is a valuable species, but is sensitive to industrial pollution [13,14], requiring significant soil moisture practically all year round [15,16] In many European mountain forests, fir was considered a recessive species, especially until the 1990s [17,18,19]. In the years 1960–1980, fir was in a strong regression manifested by, among other things, decreased growth, increased deadwood production, and trees rarely reaching the mature tree stand stage [16,20,21]. The poor health condition of forests observed until the end of the 1990s, as well as publications reporting environmental imbalance caused by strong acidification from atmospheric air contaminated with emissions, confirmed this thesis [22,23]. Starting from the mid-1990s, there was an improvement in the conditions of fir growth related to the reduction in emissions, to which those trees reacted mainly with larger increases in thickness [23]. However, the current climate change scenario suggests another regression related to progressive drought [24,25]. Research on the health condition of fir trees indicates clear concentrations of trace metals in assimilation organs observed in many European countries such as Estonia, Latvia, and the Czech Republic [19]. Most studies on the quality of the environment emphasize the role of active environmental monitoring consisting of the collection of assimilation organs directly from standing trees, as compared with passive monitoring based on the exposure of, for example, bryophytes obtained from areas recognized as unpolluted [26] (e.g., Ștefănuț et al., 2021). Active monitoring allows for a general view of the nutritional status of plants and the quality of the environment, taking into account both pollutants collected by root systems and those deposited directly on assimilation organs [26,27].
The aim of this article was to identify changes in the concentrations of elements in fir assimilation organs over the past 30 years in order to assess fir reactions as a bioindicator of changes in the functioning of the ecosystems of Central European fir forests under conditions of reduced anthropogenic emissions, selecting as a particular case the example of the unique area of the Świętokrzyskie Mountains (Świętokrzyski National Park, located in the northern range of Abies alba Mill.).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Characteristics of the Forest Area
Based on the actual vegetation map of the Świętokrzyski National Park and the ŚNP stands map, in 1986 two research transects (north/south, Figure 1) running through the main Łysogór range were established.
The most comparable areas with a similar species composition, density, age, forest habitat type, and soil type were selected (Table 1). On each transect, 5 research plots were designated (due to the strict protection area, the areas were not marked). Plots no. 1 and 6 were established at an altitude of about 400 m above sea level. The next surfaces were planned at the climax of the range at an altitude of about 500–550 m above sea level. Then, plots 5 and 10 were again located at an altitude of about 400 m above sea level.
In 2018, when examining the contents of macro- and microelements in fir needles, the tests were repeated, selecting the same transects, i.e., A: Święty Krzyż and B: Łysica (Table 1). A detailed description of the research area and precise undergrowth data of forest divisions from 1986 allowed for the identification of the area and sampling according to the 1986 scheme, i.e., date September 2018, collection method, number of trees (5 on the plot), age of trees (60–70 years old), and preparation of samples for transport. Although it is recommended to take needle samples in the winter months to observe the highest concentrations of trace metals (Napa, 2017), the biological material was collected in September to ensure the highest possible repeatability of the results. The needle collection methodology was in line with the guidelines of ICP Forests (International Cooperative Program on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests; ICP Forests, 2017).
2.2. Collection of Material for Research in 1986 and 2018
In September 1986, needle samples from 5 Abies alba trees aged about 60–70 years were collected from each research plot; trees representative of the average level of defoliation on a given plot were selected for the collection of needles. The biological material was obtained from a height of about 3 m, from 2 or 3 places on the crown. The research sample from the designated area (nos. 1 to 10) consisted of 1 mixed sample with a weight of approximately 60 g. The needles were sorted on site into fractions of the current year (1st year) and 3rd year. The samples were packed in perforated polyethylene bags and transported to a laboratory of the Field Station of the Institute of Botany of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Szarów.
The same technique of collecting needles was used in 2018. The needles were packed in polyethylene bags and transported to the environmental protection laboratory of the Jagiellonian University in Kielce.
2.3. Analytical Methodology (Fir Needles and Soils) in 1986 and 2018
The preparation of needle samples for analysis, for those collected in 1986, was carried out according to the following procedure: Needle samples, sorted by year (i.e., Year 1 (current) and Year 3), were washed 2 times in distilled water to remove dust contamination (Gorlach ed. 1986). After the samples were dried at 105 °C, the needles were homogenized in a Fritsch Pulverisette 14 pulse mill with a set of interchangeable agate grinders.
The samples were incinerated at a temperature of 480 °C in a Foss Tecator TM Digestor Auto furnace and digested in a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acid in a 3:1 volume ratio. Metal concentrations (macro- and micronutrients) were determined using a Varian Techtron 1000 atomic absorption spectrophotometer (with internal Zeeman background correction together with a GTA 120 graphite cuvette). The analyzed elements are macro- and microelements, or by adopting other criteria are necessary for plant life (S, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu) or considered toxic (Pb, Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn). The total sulfur in needle samples was determined colorimetrically using the Butters–Chenery method, which involves the oxidation of sulfur contained in organic compounds and the turbidimetric measurement of the amount of sulfates precipitated as barium sulfate. Due to the research procedure in place at that time, it was not possible to provide more detailed information on laboratory techniques (such as the limits of detection (LODs), limits of quantification (LOQs), or measurement precision (RSD)). However, the laboratory of the Field Station of the Institute of Botany of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Szarów was at that time one of the leading chemical laboratories in Poland and the obtained results were reliable.
For the 2018 samples, after the plants were washed two times with deionized water, they were dried at room temperature and then homogenized using a PULVERISETTE 14 Premium Linea analytical grinder. Needle samples weighing 1 g were weighed in a digestion vessel and wet oxidized with concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid (Suprapur Merck) at a volume ratio of 3:1 in a Cem Mars 6 microwave mineralizer (PAF/E/36) at 200° for 40 min (voltage 1200 W). After mineralization, the samples were subjected to chemical analysis using the ICP OES technique for the content of selected elements Ca, Mg, K, Na, and Mn, also including potentially toxic metals Pb, Cd, Cu, Ni, and Zn, using an Agilent Technologies 5100 SVDV emission spectrometer (Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA). Analyses were performed in 3 replications. In order to verify the correctness of the obtained results, the multi-element ERM-CD281 standard was used for external calibration.
The total sulfur content was also determined in the collected needles, after wet mineralization using the Bradsley–Lancaster nephelometric method (oxidation of organic and inorganic sulfur to SO4 in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 500 °C against sodium bicarbonate and oxygen from the air (Catalog of agrochemical research methods at chemical and chemical stations, OSCH-R Lublin, 2007, 1–19)). This method was chosen for comparison with archival markings carried out in 1986.
In 2018, four profiles were also tested at selected sites. The following determinations were made in the soil material: granulometric composition using the Cassagrande method and, in Prószyński’s modification, organic carbon according to the Tiurin and Alten method (for organic samples); pH in 1 mol KCl·dm−3 and H2O; total nitrogen according to the Kjeldahl method; Al+3 according to the Sokołów method; and the sum of exchangeable principle S according to the Kappen method. Trace metals were determined in soils by ICP OES induced plasma atomic emission spectrometry after mineralization in a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acid in a volume ratio of 3:1 using an Agilent Technologies 5100 SVDV spectrometer. The research procedure was used based on PNISO 11466 “Soil quality—Extraction of trace elements soluble in aqua regia” and on the basis of PN-EN ISO 11885.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
Differences in the average concentrations of S, Na, Mg, Ca, K, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in the needles were tested via ANOVA for the system of factors and then underwent a multiple comparison procedure using Tukey’s HSD test (at p < 0.05). During the analysis, the year of sampling and the age of needles were taken into account. Before statistical analyses were performed, the data were verified for normal distribution using the Shapiro–Wilk test and for homogeneity of variance using the Brown–Forsythe test. Statistical analysis was performed using Statistica 13.3 software (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA).
3. Study Results
3.1. Soil Basic Characteristics
The analyzed soils belonged to cambisols and were characterized by acid and very acid reactions in the entire depth of the soil profile. The carbon content in the organic level ranged from 23% to 40% and that in the organo-mineral level ranged from 0.98% to 5.75%. The nitrogen content in the organo-mineral level ranged from 0.49% to 3.12%. The analyzed soils were characterized by a similar grain size, acidity, and Al3+ content at particular soil genetic levels (Table 2). The highest concentrations of trace elements were found in the organic and organo-mineral level. The concentrations of trace elements in the bedrock levels did not differ from each other (Table 3).
3.2. Foliage Chemistry
The performed analysis of the chemical composition of the current-year (first-year) and third-year needles showed varied contents of macronutrients and heavy metals (including potentially toxic ones) (Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5).
The highest concentration recorded in the case of S was an average value of 2146.00 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. 1, transect A Święty Krzyż), and the lowest in 2018 was an average value of 510.00 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. X, transect B Łysica, Figure 2).
The highest concentration recorded in the case of Ca was in 1986 with an average value of 9630.00 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. 5, transect A Święty Krzyż), and the lowest was in 2018 with an average value of 2040.00 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. X, transect B Łysica, Figure 2).
The highest concentration recorded in the case of Mg was in 1986, with an average value of 720.00 mg·kg−1 d.m (Nos. 6 and 10, transect B Łysica). In 2018, the Mg concentration in silver fir fluctuated within the range 350.00–790.00 mg·kg−1 d.m (Figure 2). The potassium contents in 1986 ranged from 1463.00 to 3979.00 mg·kg−1 d.m and those in 2018 ranged from 1600.00 to 4200.00 mg·kg−1 d.m
The fir needles from 1986 had higher sulfur concentrations than those from 2018. The sulfur concentrations in the fir needles in 2018 decreased by half in comparison to those in 1986. The concentrations of magnesium in the three-year-old needles from 1986 were lower than those in the one-year-old needles. The potassium concentrations were highest in the three-year-old needles from 1986. They were also characterized by higher calcium concentrations. The fir needles did not differ from each other in terms of sodium concentrations.
Among the potentially toxic elements, the highest concentrations were found in 1986 for Zn, at 47.60 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. 7 transect B Łysica); Cu, at 9.10 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. 8, transect B); Pb, with an average the value of 8.10 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. 3, transect A Święty Krzyż); and Ni, at 4.90 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. 10, transect B Łysica). Re-tests carried out in 2018 showed lower contents of these potentially toxic elements in the fir needles, with the lowest decrease observed in Pb (a highest value of 4.55 mg·kg−1 d.m (No. III transect A Święty Krzyż)).
From 1986 to 2018, the concentrations of cadmium, copper, manganese, and zinc in the three-year-old fir needles decreased by about 150% and the concentration of lead in the fir needles collected in 2018 was three times lower than that in needles from 1986. The concentrations of cadmium, copper, manganese, and zinc in the one-year-old fir needles did not undergo any changes.
4. Discussion
The contents of macro- and microelements in the assimilation organs of trees depend on a number of factors, such as the atmospheric air conditions, the emission of pollutants into the soil, the type of soil, and the circulation rate of soil solutions [17,19,22,28]. During the 31-year interval between the sets of research, a strong reduction in SO2 emissions into the atmospheric air was observed in data collected at the Łysogóry Base Station (Table 4) [29,30]. Since the 1990s, there has been a clear downward trend in the deposition amount of not only sulfate ions but also nitrate and calcium.
Sulfur accumulates mainly in older tissues and is present in leaves in the form of various chemical compounds. The sulfur concentrations in fir needles in Poland and Slovakia were found to range from 0.13% to 0.14% and were close to the sulfur concentrations found in the firs of the Świętokrzyskie Mountains [31]. The sulfur concentrations in fir needles taken from the Bohemian Forest in the Czech Republic ranged from 0.11% to 0.18% [16]. The phosphorus concentrations in the fir needles were below the limit value. This element is mainly responsible for regulating the water regime and deficiency may result in weaker resistance to stress factors [16]. The potassium concentrations in fir needles in Czech forests were found to range from 0.3% to 1.1%. In research conducted in the Carpathian forests in Poland and Slovakia, the concentrations of potassium were found to range from 0.65% to 0.81% [31]. In Germany, in turn, the average potassium concentrations in fir needles were about 0.77% [32]. In the forests of Silesian Beskids and Żywiec Beskids in the Western Carpathians, the potassium concentrations were found to range from 0.48% to 0.52%. The magnesium deficiency level in fir needles was around 0.07–0.08% [33]. The concentrations of magnesium in fir needles were below the limit value. Higher magnesium concentrations were found in the forests of Poland and Slovakia [31]. In the Czech Republic, in the area of the Bohemian Forest, the magnesium concentrations in the fir needles were found to range from 0.35% to 0.05% [16]. Magnesium is one of the most important components influencing enzymatic reactions. Magnesium deficiency causes necrotic spots on leaves and shortening of shoots and roots [34]. The concentrations of calcium and potassium vary depending on the age of needles; therefore, they are particularly important in biogenic processes. The concentrations of calcium and potassium in needles are particularly influenced by the content of heavy metals which may contribute to the formation of calcium oxalate crystals [16].
Terrestrial plants take up heavy metals from soil solutions through root systems in an active way [35,36,37] and passively through stomata in the form of gas or that dissolved in rainwater [19]. In soils, heavy metals are accumulated mainly in the subsurface layer; therefore, due to the deep root system of firs it is assumed that heavy metals accumulate in needles from aerosols in the air [38]. Most heavy metals are much more efficiently absorbed and assimilated by plants from acidic and excessively moist soils (such as the soils of the main mountain range of the Świętokrzyskie Mountains) than from neutral soil solutions. Plants absorb zinc and cadmium most easily, while copper and lead are more difficult [39]. There is, therefore, a gradation in the degree of mobility of trace elements in soil, the pace of movement in the trophic chain, and the speed and ease of their bioaccumulation in plants, which is conditioned by abiotic and biotic factors (including species, availability of minerals and organic matter, soil structure, and, above all, its reaction) (Siwek, 2008). In the literature reports, one can find statements regarding the locations of heavy metals in plants. Cadmium and copper accumulate mainly in the roots of plants; lead is transported mainly to the above-ground parts of plants; and zinc, manganese, and nickel are distributed through the whole plant [38,40]. As trees get older, nutrients and trace elements migrate towards younger needles [41,42]. In polluted environments, elder needles may serve as stores of trace elements as part of the detoxification process, as evidenced by their higher concentrations [41,43]. In the case of highly polluted environments, an increase in lead concentrations may also result from the passive accumulation of dust on leaf surfaces [41,44]. There are many pieces of research reporting changes in trace element concentrations depending on the age of needles. A significant increase in the concentrations of lead and nickel was observed depending on the age of needles [41,44,45]. On the other hand, in research by Gandois and Probst [46], a decrease in the concentrations of copper and cadmium in elder needles was reported, but no detoxification process was observed; the total concentrations of cadmium and lead in younger needles were higher than those in elder ones.
5. Conclusions
A decrease in the concentrations of pollutants in fir needles indicates a significant reduction in pressure on the environment and an improvement in the conditions of ecosystems in 2018 compared to those in 1986. In the period of more than 30 years between the sets of research, the concentrations of lead in fir needles decreased threefold and those of sulfur decreased twofold. A significant increase in the concentrations of cadmium, copper, manganese, and zinc in the three-year-old needles showed that they are a good indicator of environmental pollution with trace elements and may be used in biomonitoring. The present environmental pollution does not significantly affect the nutritional status of fir assimilation organs. Although the nutritional status of fir, based on the conducted research, should be considered good, a disturbing phenomenon that may affect the condition of fir stands in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains is the increase in dry years and the resulting water deficit in soils.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, A.Ś.; methodology, A.Ś.; software, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; validation, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; formal analysis, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; investigation, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; resources, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; data curation, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; writing—review and editing, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; visualization, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; supervision, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P.; project administration, A.Ś., B.Ś. and M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was financed by Jan Kochanowski University.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
- Świercz, A.; Smorzewska, E.; Bogdanowicz, M. State of scots pine needles’ epicuticular waxes and content of microelements in bioindication. Ecol. Chem. Eng. 2014, 21, 367–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Szwed, M.; Żukowski, W.; Kozłowski, R. The presence of selected elements in the microscopic image of pine needles as an effect of cement and lime pressure within the region of Białe Zagłębie (Central Europe). Toxics 2021, 9, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feliciano, M.S.; Pio, C.A.; Vermeulen, A.T. Evaluation of SO2 dry deposition over short vegetation in Portugal. Atmos. Environ. 2001, 35, 3633–3643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grennfelt, P.; Engleryd, A.; Forsius, M. Acid rain and air pollution: 50 years of progress in environmental science and policy. Ambio 2020, 49, 849–864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Likus-Cieślik, J.; Socha, J.; Gruba, P.; Pietrzykowski, M. The current state of environmental pollution with sulfur dioxide (SO2) in Poland (Central Europe) based on sulfur concentration in Scots pine (Pinussylvestris L.) needles. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 258, 113559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schulze, E.D.; Oren, R.; Lange, O.L. Processes leading to forest decline: A synthesis. Ecol. Stud. 1989, 77, 460–468. [Google Scholar]
- Tomlinson, G.H. Acidic deposition, nutrient leaching and forest growth. Biogeochemistry 2003, 65, 51–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schweinfurth, P.S. An introduction to coal quality. In The National Coal Resource; Pierce, B.S., Dennen, K.O., Eds.; US Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Guala, S.; Vega, F.A.; Covelo, E.F. Modification of a soil–vegetation nonlinear interaction model with acid deposition for simplified experimental applicability. Ecoogical Model. 2009, 220, 2137–2141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, K.H.; Fang, Y.T.; Yu, F.M.; Liu, Q.; Li, F.R.; Peng, S.L. Soil Acidification in Response to Acid Deposition in Three Subtropical Forests of Subtropical China. Pedosphere 2010, 20, 399–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rinne, K.T.; Loader, N.J.; Switsur, V.R.; Treydte, K.S.; Waterhouse, J.S. Investigating the influence of sulphur dioxide (SO2) on the stable isotope ratios (δ13C and δ18O) of tree rings. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2010, 74, 2327–2339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marcshner, H. Marschner’s Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd Edition; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Kowalkowski, A.; Brogowski, Z.; Kocoń, J.; Swałdek, M. Stan odżywienia i zdrowotności jodły (Abies alba Mill.) w Świętokrzyskim Parku Narodowym. Rocz. Świętokrzyskie 1990, 17, 11–26. [Google Scholar]
- Szymura, T.H. Concentration of elements in silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) needles as a function of needles’ age. Trees 2009, 23, 211–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gałuszka, A. The chemistry of soils, rocks and plant bioindicators in three ecosystems of the Holy Cross Mountains. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2005, 110, 55–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Novotný, R.; Černý, D.; Šrámek, V. Nutrition of Silver Fir (Abies alba Mill) Growing at the Upper Limit of its Occurrence in the Šumava National Park and Protected Landscape Area. J. For. Sci. 2010, 56, 381–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bringmark, L.; Lundin, L.; Augustaitis, A. Trace Metal Budgets for Forested Catchments in Europe—Pb, Cd, Hg, Cu and Zn. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2013, 224, 1502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mauri, A.; de Rigo, D.; Caudullo, G. Abies alba in Europe: Distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In European Atlas of Forest Tree Species; Publication Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2016; pp. 48–49. [Google Scholar]
- Napa, Ü.; Ostonen, I.; Kabral, N. Biogenic and contaminant heavy metal pollution in Estonian coniferous forests. Reg. Environ. Change 2017, 17, 2111–2120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vitasse, Y.; Bottero, A.; Rebetez, M.; Conedera, M.; Augustin, S.; Brang, P.; Tinner, W. What is the potential of silver fir to thrive under warmer and drier climate? Eur. J. For. Res. 2019, 138, 547–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Filipiak, M. Changes of Abies alba crown state and stand quality class in the Sudety Mountains. Dendrobiology 2005, 54, 11–17. [Google Scholar]
- Migaszewski, Z.M.; Gałuszka, A.; Świercz, A.; Kucharczyk, J. Element concentrations in soils, and plants bioindicators in selected habitats of the Holy Cross Mountains, Poland. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2001, 129, 369–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruchwald, A.; Dmyterko, E. Stopień Uszkodzenia Drzewostanów Jodłowych Gór Świętokrzyskich. Sylwan 2016, 160, 299–308. [Google Scholar]
- Gazol, A.; Camarero, J.; Gutierrez, E.; Popa, I.; Andreu-Hayles, L.; Motta, R.; Nola, P.; Ribas, M.; Sanguesa-Barreda, G.; Urbinati, C.; et al. Distinct effects of climate warming on populations of silver fir (Abies alba) across Europe. J. Biogeogr. 2015, 42, 1150–1162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jarzyna, K. Climatic hazards for native tree species in Poland with special regards to silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Theor. Appl. Climatol. 2021, 144, 581–591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ștefănuț, S.; Öllerer, K. Country-scale complementary passive and active biomonitoring of airborne trace elements for environmental risk assessment. Ecol. Indic. 2021, 125, 107357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steiness, E.; Friedland, A.J. Metal contamination of natural surface soils from long range atmospheric transport: Existing and missing knowledge. Environ. Rev. 2005, 14, 169–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parzych, A.; Mochnacký, S.; Sobisz, Z.; Kurhaluk, N.; Polláková, N. Accumulation of heavy metals in needles and bark of Pinus species. Folia For. Pol. Ser. A-For. 2017, 59, 34–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kostrzewski, A.; Majewski, M. Stan Geoekosystemów Polski w 2018 Roku; Integrated Monitoring of Natural Environment Poznań-Morasko: Poznań, Poland, 2019; pp. 1–108. [Google Scholar]
- Kostrzewski, A.; Majewski, M. 2018. Stan i Przemiany Środowiska Przyrodniczego Geoekosystemów Polski w Latach 1994–2015 w Oparciu o Realizację Programu Zintegrowanego Monitoringu Środowiska PrzyrodniczegoI; Biblioteka Monitoringu Środowiska: Warsaw, Poland, 2018; Volume 32. [Google Scholar]
- Maňkovská, B.; Godzik, B.; Badea, O.; Shparyk, Y.; Moravčík, P. Chemical and morphological characteristics of key tree species of the Carpathian Mountains. Environ. Pollut. 2004, 130, 41–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Musio, M.; Augustin, N.; Kahle, H.P.; Krall, A.; Kublin, E.; Unseld, R.; von Wilpert, K. Predicting magnesium concentration in needles of silver fir and Norway spruce—A case study. Ecol. Model. 2004, 179, 307–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hüttl, R.F.; Schaaf, W. Mg Deficiency in Forest Ecosystems; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Borgulat, J.; Łukasik, W.; Staszewski, T. Mineral status of young silver fir stands in BeskidŚląski and Żywiecki Mountains. In Current Problems of Environmental Protection, Assesment of the State of Environment, Threats of the Environment, Applied Technologies in Environmental Protection; Sierka, E., Nadgórska-Socha, A., Eds.; University of Silesia: Katowice, Poland, 2017; p. 130. [Google Scholar]
- Siwek, M. Plants in postindustrial site, contaminated with heavy metals—Part II: Mechanisms of detoxification and strategies of plant adaptation to heavy metals. Wiadomości Bot. 2008, 52, 7–23. [Google Scholar]
- De Santoa, A.V.; Fierro, A.; Berg, B.; Rutigliano, F.A.; De Marco, A. Heavy metals and litter decomposition in coniferous forests. Soil Sci. 2002, 28, 63–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Melkikh, A.; Izmozherova, K.D. Active ion transport as the basis for water movement in plants. J. Theor. Biol. 2020, 500, 110332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fargašová, A. Distribúcia Kovov v Životnom Prostredí; Prírodovedecká Fakulta: Bratislava, Slovakia, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Kabata-Pendias, A. Soil-plant transfer of trace elements—An environmental issue. Geoderma 2004, 122, 143–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grešíková, S.; Janiga, M. Analysis of S, Cl, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Zn, Rb, Sr, Mo, Ba and Pb concentrations in the needles of Abies alba and potential impact of paper mill industry. Oecologia Mont. 2017, 26, 47–55. [Google Scholar]
- Aznar, J.C.; Richer-Laflèche, M.; Bégin, C.; Bégin, Y. Lead Exclusion and Copper Translocation in Black Spruce Needles. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2009, 203, 139–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ranger, J.; Marques, R.; Colin-Belgrand, M. Nutrient dynamics during the development of a Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii Mirb.) stand. Acta Oecologica 1997, 18, 73–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Michopoulos, P.; Bourletsikas, A.; Kaoukis, K.; Daskalakou, E.; Karetsos, G.; Kostakis, M.; Thomaidis, N.S.; Pasias, I.N.; Kaberi, H.; Iliakis, S. The distribution and variability of heavy metals in a mountainous fir forest ecosystem in two hydrological years. Glob. NEST J. 2018, 20, 188–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rautio, P.; Huttunen, S. Total vs. internal element concentrations in Scots pine needles along a sulphur and metal pollution gradient. Environ. Pollut. 2003, 122, 273–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuang, Y.W.; Wen, D.Z.; Zhou, G.Y.; Liu, S.Z. Distribution of elements in needles of Pinus massoniana (Lamb.) was uneven and affected by needle age. Environ. Pollut. 2007, 145, 146–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gandoisa, L.; Probst, A. Localisation and mobility of trace metal in silver fir needles. Chemosphere 2012, 87, 204–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Figure 1.
Localization.
Figure 2.
The contents of selected macronutrients in 1-year-old and 3-year-old silver fir needles in milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg·kg−1 d.m (mean values ± standard deviation (SD)).
Figure 2.
The contents of selected macronutrients in 1-year-old and 3-year-old silver fir needles in milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg·kg−1 d.m (mean values ± standard deviation (SD)).
Figure 3.
The contents of selected micronutrients in 1-year-old and 3-year-old silver fir needles in milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg·kg−1 d.m) (mean values ± SD).
Figure 3.
The contents of selected micronutrients in 1-year-old and 3-year-old silver fir needles in milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg·kg−1 d.m) (mean values ± SD).
Figure 4.
The contents of selected macronutrients in 1-year-old and 3-year-old silver fir needles in milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg·kg−1 d.m) (mean values ± SD; n = 10).
Figure 4.
The contents of selected macronutrients in 1-year-old and 3-year-old silver fir needles in milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg·kg−1 d.m) (mean values ± SD; n = 10).
Figure 5.
The contents of selected micronutrients in 1-year-old and 3-year-old silver fir needles in milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg kg−1 d.m) (mean values ± SD; n = 10).
Figure 5.
The contents of selected micronutrients in 1-year-old and 3-year-old silver fir needles in milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg kg−1 d.m) (mean values ± SD; n = 10).
Table 1.
Characteristics of research plots.
| Transect A: Świety Krzyż | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Width | Length | Height above Sea Level | Age of Trees on the Surface | Crown Cover | Habitat | Classification 2019 WRB |
| 1 | 50.846315 | 21.038034 | 420 | 60–70 years | 0.6 | Abietetumpolonicum | Dystric Cambisols |
| 2 | 50.852648 | 21.039435 | 500 | 40–70 years | 0.6 | ||
| 3 | 50.858934 | 21.041205 | 550 | 50–80 years | 0.7 | Dystric Cambisols (Protospodic) | |
| 4 | 50.864055 | 21.043123 | 500 | 60–80 years | 0.8 | Dystric Cambisols | |
| 5 | 50.870758 | 21.045557 | 330 | 60–70 years | 0.4 | Gleyic Cambisols | |
| Transect B:Łysica | |||||||
| 6 | 50.880543 | 20.894290 | 420 | 60–70 years | 0.7 | Abietetumpolonicum | Dystric Cambisols |
| 7 | 50.885336 | 20.893479 | 500 | 40–70 years | 0.6 | Abietetumpolonicum | Dystric Cambisols |
| 8 | 50.892685 | 20.895438 | 580 | 80–90 years | 0.4 | ||
| 9 | 50.892685 | 20.896885 | 500 | 40–120 years | 0.8 | ||
| 10 | 50.893896 | 20.897227 | 350 | 60–70 years | 0.8 | Dentario-Glandulosae-Fagetum/ | |
Table 2.
Basic soil properties under silver fir growing in Świętokrzyski National Park (mean).
| Profile/No. | Level | Sampling Depth (cm) | Sands | Silt | Clay | pH H2O | pH KCl | CTOT | NTOT | Al+3 | Hh | S | V |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2–0.05 | 0.05–0.002 | >0.002 | % | cmol(+) ∙ kg−1 | % | ||||||||
| Mm | |||||||||||||
| Transect A Św. Krzyż I | O | 0–2 | - | - | - | 4.83 | 4.43 | 38.32 | 19.11 | 7.28 | 62.13 | 18.16 | 82. 2 |
| A | 5–15 | 55.00 | 42.00 | 3.00 | 4.12 | 3.64 | 5.75 | 3.12 | 6.11 | 16.08 | 1.07 | 18.7 | |
| Bw(Bbr) | 20–35 | 40.00 | 55.00 | 5.00 | 4.22 | 3.83 | - | - | 3.24 | 6.22 | 0.43 | 6.72 | |
| C | 50–60 | 27.00 | 57.00 | 6.00 | 4.61 | 4.13 | - | - | 3.01 | 4.13 | 0.14 | 4.21 | |
| Transect A Św. Krzyż V | O | 0–2 | - | - | - | 4.13 | 3.66 | 40.08 | 20.13 | 14.71 | 91.08 | 13.43 | 90.02 |
| A | 8–18 | 51.00 | 28.00 | 21.00 | 4.51 | 3.49 | 0.981 | 0.49 | 7.51 | 7.51 | 0.96 | 9.42 | |
| Bwg(Bbrgg) | 35–55 | 29.00 | 27.00 | 44.00 | 4.71 | 3.61 | - | - | 9.71 | 10.65 | 4.72 | 12.34 | |
| Cg(CGor) | 90–100 | 32.00 | 35.00 | 33.00 | 4.67 | 3.51 | - | -- | 5.06 | 6.11 | 5.9 | 11.713 | |
| Transect B Łysica VI | O | 0–3 | - | - | - | 4.81 | 4.23 | 37.44 | 15.11 | 6.42 | 57.93 | 13.73 | 71.33 |
| A | 5–12 | 31.00 | 62.00 | 7.00 | 4.33 | 3.65 | 2.98 | 1.63 | 9.11 | 14.31 | 0.53 | 15.07 | |
| Bw(Bbr) | 20–33 | 28.00 | 65.00 | 7.00 | 4.51 | 3.9 | - | 5.99 | 8.33 | 0.29 | 8.61 | ||
| C | 40–60 | 27.00 | 61.00 | 12.00 | 4.44 | 3.82 | - | - | 4.31 | 5.11 | 0.22 | 6.00 | |
| Transect B Łysica X | O | 0–2 | - | - | - | 4.63 | 3.72 | 23.16 | 11.73 | 4.85 | 44.98 | 9.03 | 53.88 |
| A | 4–15 | 33.00 | 61.00 | 6.00 | 4.40 | 3.81 | 4.11 | 3.08 | 8.55 | 15.98 | 1.22 | 12.31 | |
| Bw(Bbr) | 20–30 | 30.00 | 64.00 | 6.00 | 4.00 | 3.79 | - | - | 6.11 | 8 | 0.16 | 8.01 | |
| C | 40–55 | 34.00 | 59.00 | 7.00 | 4.31 | 4.01 | - | - | 4.04 | 5.43 | 0.13 | 5.34 | |
Table 3.
Heavy metal concentrations in soils under silver fir growing in Świętokrzyski National Park (mean).
Table 3.
Heavy metal concentrations in soils under silver fir growing in Świętokrzyski National Park (mean).
| Profile/No. | Level | Sampling Depth (cm) | Cd | Cu | Ni | Pb | Zn |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| mg∙kg−1 d.m | |||||||
| Transect A Św.Krzyż I | O | 0–2 | 0.39 | 9.77 | 20.34 | 49.88 | 120.11 |
| A | 5–15 | 0.22 | 8.99 | 19.5 | 56.8 | 131.62 | |
| Bw(Bbr) | 20–35 | 0.1 | 6.89 | 11.23 | 37.12 | 98.77 | |
| C | 50–60 | 0.26 | 4.94 | 8.94 | 23.89 | 55.6 | |
| Transect A Św.Krzyż V | O | 0–2 | 0.48 | 8.52 | 30.11 | 59.12 | 136.45 |
| A | 8–18 | 0.32 | 10.23 | 22.76 | 90.89 | 135.87 | |
| Bwg (Bbrgg) | 35–55 | 0.43 | 9.52 | 18.75 | 47.1 | 110.85 | |
| Cg(CGor) | 90–100 | 0.27 | 5.11 | 14.09 | 29.75 | 69.78 | |
| Transect B Łysica VI | O | 0–3 | 0.51 | 10.07 | 29.72 | 62.33 | 148.56 |
| A | 5–12 | 0.61 | 12.31 | 22.86 | 68.54 | 150.98 | |
| Bw(Bbr) | 20–33 | 0.43 | 8.12 | 13.09 | 50.37 | 120.99 | |
| C | 40–60 | 0.27 | 4.43 | 10.02 | 22.81 | 100.07 | |
| Transect B Łysica X | O | 0–2 | 0.41 | 7.88 | 33.52 | 45.71 | 111.09 |
| A | 4–15 | 0.49 | 8.45 | 30.8 | 50.11 | 136.7 | |
| Bw(Bbr) | 20–30 | 0.37 | 9.25 | 14.72 | 35.78 | 125.66 | |
| C | 40–55 | 0.22 | 4.89 | 9.97 | 28.44 | 84.89 | |
Table 4.
Atmospheric air conditions in the years of research based on Kostrzewski, Majewski, 2018, 2019.
Table 4.
Atmospheric air conditions in the years of research based on Kostrzewski, Majewski, 2018, 2019.
| Year of Research | Annual SO2 Concentration in the Atmospheric Air, µg/m3 | The Average Concentration of Dissolved Substances in Rainwater, mg/dm−3 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| S-SO4 | N-NO3 | N- NH4 | Pb | Na | K | Mg | Ca | ||
| 1986 * | 32.09 | 18.92 | 4.30 | 3.07 | 0.99 | - | - | 3.11 | - |
| 1995 | 24.85 | 4.10 | 1.21 | 1.11 | 0.44 | 0.75 | 0.78 | 0.90 | 4.31 |
| 2000 | 10.02 | 4.31 | 1.36 | 1.15 | 0.43 | 0.63 | 0.77 | 1.95 | 2.95 |
| 2001 | 10.30 | 2.94 | 1.23 | 1.08 | 0.31 | 0.92 | 0.49 | 2.91 | 3.15 |
| 2004 | 5.95 | 4.65 | 1.11 | 1.32 | 0.17 | 0.90 | 0.97 | 0.64 | 1.58 |
| 2011 | 4.49 | 3.33 | 1.92 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| 2018 | 3.65 | 2.48 | 0.55 | 0.80 | 0.16 | 3.52 | 1.14 | 0.80 | 2.27 |
* Czarny Z., Oszczudłowski J., Bezak-Mazur E., Słomkiewicz P., Zdenkowski J., 1989: Badanie zanieczyszczeń powietrza atmosferycznego na terenie Świętokrzyskiego Parku Narodowego (spr. z badań nr 64/RNE/89) Kielce:1-27.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
MDPI and ACS Style
Świercz, A.; Świątek, B.; Pietrzykowski, M. Changes in the Concentrations of Trace Elements and Supply of Nutrients to Silver Fir (Abies alba Mill.) Needles as a Bioindicator of Industrial Pressure over the Past 30 Years in Świętokrzyski National Park (Southern Poland). Forests 2022, 13, 718. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050718
AMA Style
Świercz A, Świątek B, Pietrzykowski M. Changes in the Concentrations of Trace Elements and Supply of Nutrients to Silver Fir (Abies alba Mill.) Needles as a Bioindicator of Industrial Pressure over the Past 30 Years in Świętokrzyski National Park (Southern Poland). Forests. 2022; 13(5):718. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050718
Chicago/Turabian StyleŚwiercz, Anna, Bartłomiej Świątek, and Marcin Pietrzykowski. 2022. "Changes in the Concentrations of Trace Elements and Supply of Nutrients to Silver Fir (Abies alba Mill.) Needles as a Bioindicator of Industrial Pressure over the Past 30 Years in Świętokrzyski National Park (Southern Poland)" Forests 13, no. 5: 718. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050718
Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.
