4.1. Push Pull Factors
As suggested in
Table 2 item, prior study abroad experiences, the majority of respondents dedicated effort to learn about Taiwan in preparation for study abroad experiences (either by sourcing information from the internet or by asking someone who had previous travel to Taiwan). This is actually a good sign, wherein respondents knowingly prepared and acquainted themselves with Taiwan as the host nation. Results presented in
Table 2 detail study abroad goals that align with previous studies wherein
to experience a new culture (
n = 1368 or 73.16%) and/or
experience life outside my home country (
n = 1368 or 73.16%) were major pull factors for choosing Taiwan as a host nation [
12,
37,
38].
Respondents placed value on the possibility of pursuing education elsewhere; a sort of
stepping-stone as coined by Li and Bray [
45] study of PRC students in Hong Kong and Macau. Findings from this study suggest that the overarching rationale to study in Taiwan was to experience a culture
different from their own. Similar to related studies, a dominant pull factor was the ability to experience living in a different country [
46,
47].
Chi-square tests were performed on each item in
Table 2 to compare significance between PRC and IS respondents. Significant differences were found with study goals
to become more mature and independent with χ
2 (1,
N = 1870) = 7.417,
p = 0.006,
V = 0.0005;
to learn a new language with χ
2 (1,
N = 1870) = 15.38,
p < 0.001,
V = 0.0005; and
to make preparation for further studies with χ
2 (1,
N = 1870) = 11.88,
p = 0.001,
V = 0.0005—all denoting very small effect sizes [
48]. In addition, the items detailing prior experiences—
talked with people who have been to Taiwan, χ
2 (1,
N = 1870) = 6.95,
p = 0.008,
V = 0.0005 and
travel to/visited Taiwan, χ
2 (1,
N = 1870) = 11.88,
p = 0.001,
V = 0.0005—were computed to be significantly different also with very small effect sizes [
48]. Note that
V or Cramér’s
V values that are nearest to 1 signify a stronger association between the two variables [
49].
To further understand potential push and pull factors [
51], satisfaction ratings with regard to respondents’ study abroad experiences in Taiwan were collected using a 5-points Likert-type scale [
52], with ratings from 1 denoting least to 5 indicating most satisfied. Various satisfaction factors such as academic interactions, satisfaction with studying alone and/or with students of other nationalities; leisure interactions, satisfaction with travel or having fun around Taiwan alone and/or with students of other nationalities; campus facilities, satisfaction with using the host institutions’ resources; study experiences, satisfaction with the overall quality of education related services; and community experiences, satisfaction with interactions in local community settings are collected. Respondents’ overall satisfaction was computed at 3.56 (
SD = 0.54) denoting moderately high rating.
Table 3 shows the various satisfaction factors together with their Cronbach [
53] Alpha reliabilities ranging from 0.70 to 0.87 signifying moderate to high levels of reliability [
54]. To summarize, all respondents were satisfied with the importance placed on physical interactions with the host culture (all scores are above 2; lowest mean score of 2.81 is collected from the PRC students for the item
local peoples’ acceptance of other culture). Both PRC and IS respondents noted positive experiences (as shown with moderately high ratings in all of the satisfaction factors and items). Besides the overarching rationale of
experiencing a new culture while studying in Taiwan, all respondents rated their
study experience in Taiwan as the highest category (mean satisfaction of 3.80 for both groups). For individual items, respondents rated
international student affairs services as the highest with an overall mean satisfaction of 4.07 signifying quite high ratings (mean satisfaction for IS = 4.10 and for PRC = 4.02). In addition, respondents rated the use of
library resource and facilities with an overall mean satisfaction of 4.00 denoting high ratings (mean satisfaction for IS = 3.96 and PRC = 4.05). As for the lowest item, respondents rated the
local peoples’ acceptance of other cultures as partly satisfied with an overall mean of 2.85 (mean satisfaction for IS = 2.87 and PRC = 2.81).
For comparative analysis, independent-sample
t-tests were performed on the satisfaction factors and items.
Table 3 also shows the significant differences between IS and PRC respondents. Note that approximately 50 percent of the items had no significant differences; this finding suggests that the IS and PRC respondents had similar levels of satisfaction; their perception regarding the quality of services offered and resources available was the same.
Nonetheless, significant differences were also noted. The IS respondents (
M = 3.33,
SD = 0.81) were significantly more satisfied with their overall community experience in comparison to the PRC respondents (
M = 3.24,
SD = 0.86) with
t (1868) = 2.25,
p = 0.025,
d = 0.10. The PRC respondents (
M = 3.73,
SD = 0.80) were significantly more satisfied with their overall leisure interactions in comparison to the IS respondents (
M = 3.60,
SD = 0.82) with
t (1868) = 3.39,
p = 0.001,
d = 0.16, both having small effect sizes [
48]. Further significant differences were also noted with PRC students having higher satisfaction ratings on items —
studying with other international students (PRC with
M = 3.20,
SD = 1.32 and IS with
M = 3.05,
SD = 1.35) with
t (1868) = 2.41,
p = 0.016,
d = 0.11,
going out with other international students (PRC with
M = 3.60,
SD = 1.27 and IS with
M = 3.39,
SD = 1.35) with
t (1868) = 3.52,
p < 0.001,
d = 0.16,
going out with students from my country (PRC with
M = 3.93,
SD = 1.04 and IS with
M = 3.77,
SD = 1.12) with
t (1868) = 3.11,
p = 0.002,
d = 0.16, use of
medical services (PRC with
M = 3.51,
SD = 1.23 and IS with
M = 3.33,
SD = 1.36) with
t (1868) = 3.07,
p = 0.002,
d = 0.14, and the perception on the
quality of teachers (PRC with
M = 3.83,
SD = 0.95 and IS with
M = 3.73,
SD = 0.97) with
t (1868) = 2.27,
p = 0.023,
d = 0.10 — all of which denote low effect sizes [
48]. Note that
d or Cohen’s
d values lower than 0.25 are considered as low or small effect sizes [
55].
These differences are promising indicators of PRC respondents ability and willingness to take on the mantle of international leadership for cross-strait cooperation and beyond. Perhaps these can be considered as gains to be contextualized as an important argument for the goal of continued study abroad between Taiwan and the PRC. What is evident is the widespread embrace among respondents for skill and qualities that contribute to cross-strait understanding and diplomacy. With the very best of intentions, Taiwan colleges and universities have an opportunity to emphasize enhancement of global competence, which in turn could increase PRC student and family interest in Taiwan study abroad programs.
In an attempt to understand and predict overall satisfaction, two separate step-wise multiple linear regressions were performed. For the IS respondents, regression analysis indicated that one predictor
to make preparation for further studies (β = 0.06,
p = 0.050) explained 0.4% of the variance, with
F (1, 1052) = 3.86,
p = 0.050 and an overall model fit of R
2 = 0.003, which significantly predicted the overall study abroad satisfaction. This can actually indicate several issues: for instance, respondents might consider a completed degree from a Taiwan university, or the study abroad experience as plus factors for future professional endeavors. As well learning Mandarin Chinese in Taiwan could contribute to future plans. Similar findings were noted in a quasi-ethnographic study by Ching, Wang, and Wen [
29], wherein participating IS respondents mentioned the value of learning Mandarin Chinese. However, based on the regression analysis, the item
to learn a new language was not a significant predictor.
As for the PRC respondents, regression analysis indicated that two predictors to learn a new language (β = 0.13, p = 0.001) and to make new friends (β = −0.09, p = 0.022) explained 1.6% of the variance, with F (2, 813) = 6.53, p = 0.002 and an overall model fit of R2 = 0.013, which significantly predicted overall satisfaction. The significant item to learn a new language was an interesting result that might indicate that PRC respondents had increased opportunities in Taiwan to learn English and/or other foreign languages. Although both groups of respondents were quite satisfied with the study abroad experiences in Taiwan, the underlying goals and prior experiences that contributed to satisfaction were quite different.
Lastly, additional computations were conducted to account for the confounding influence of the students’ background demographics, such as age, gender, duration of stay, and type of study abroad program (short-term or degree-seeking) [
56]. For the IS, after controlling for their age, gender, duration of stay, and type of study abroad program, hierarchical multiple linear regression result shows that the total explained variance increased to 0.7%. For the PRC students, similarly after controlling for their background demographics, hierarchical multiple linear regression result shows that the total explained variance increased to 2.4%, hence further strengthening the importance of
to make preparation for further studies,
to learn a new language, and
to make new friends as the persistent goals of study abroad.
4.2. Strategies for Acculturation
The study abroad literature notes that when students are exposed to unfamiliar environments, they may experience anxiety, confusion, and depression [
41,
57]. Difficulty mastering the target language can be a major barrier for adjustment to the host education arena and society in general. Interactions with local students can be problematic as well. Factors that predict how well individual study abroad students adjust in their first semesters generally includes gender, age, family circumstances, emotional coping strategies, understanding of the host institution and society, foresight about potential difficulties, and language capability [
58].
Given the close proximity of culture, history, and language between PRC respondents and Taiwan; the elements of acculturation were not as problematic as typically expected for study abroad students new to Taiwanese universities. Students of more diverse cultures are noted to encounter more difficulties with adjustment [
59]. Successful study abroad is much dependent on how students manage their transition upon contact with a foreign culture [
31]. To understand and compare how IS and PRC respondents managed this transition, acculturation strategies were collected using the REAAM [
41]. This survey was adapted and based on four strategies popularized by Berry [
20,
60,
61,
62], wherein
assimilation (Cronbach α = 0.88, in the original study) denoted the full acceptance of the host culture,
integration (α = 0.82) denoted the retention of own and acceptance of host culture,
separation (α = 0.84) denoted the reluctance to accept the host culture, and
marginalization (α = 0.93) denoted the rejection of both own and host culture [
41]. The survey items used a 5-points Likert [
52] type scale with ratings from 1 denoting
not at all agree to 5 indicating
strongly agree, hence, the higher the rating the higher the perceived agreement or association with the said item.
Table 4 shows the acculturation strategies together with their Cronbach [
53] Alpha reliabilities ranging from 0.81 to 0.92 signifying high levels of reliability [
54]. For the comparison between IS and PRC respondents, independent-sample
t-tests were conducted. Results show that by group, respondents had no significant differences with
assimilation and
separation strategies. Only one assimilation item
I get along better with local Taiwan people was computed to be significantly different, with IS respondents (
M = 3.56,
SD = 1.14) getting along slightly better with local people in comparison to PRC respondents (
M = 3.45,
SD = 1.13) with
t (1868) = 2.03,
p = 0.042,
d = 0.10, denoting small effect size [
48].
Results also show that PRC respondents (
M = 4.06,
SD = 0.89) were significantly more integrated than IS respondents (
M = 3.97,
SD = 0.86) with
t (1868) = 2.34,
p = 0.020,
d = 0.11. Interestingly, the data also show that PRC students (
M = 1.69,
SD = 0.73) are significantly more marginalized than IS (
M = 1.60,
SD = 0.68) with
t (1868) = 2.74,
p = 0.006,
d = 0.13, both denoting small effect sizes [
48]. To further understand the relationship of
integration and
marginalization strategies, correlational analyses were conducted. Results show that both groups IS respondents (
r = −0.25,
n = 1054,
p < 0.001) and the PRC respondents (
r = −0.30,
n = 816,
p < 0.001) exhibit small to medium negative correlation [
48]. This means that the more integrated the students are, the less marginalized they are.
As for the
integration and
marginalization items, several items were found to be significantly different. The PRC respondents scored slightly higher than their IS counterparts, while denoting small effect sizes [
48] (see
Table 4 for more details on the items). For the
integration item
I have both Taiwan friends and friends who are from my country, the PRC respondents (
M = 4.21,
SD = 1.09) scored significantly slightly higher than the IS respondents (
M = 4.03,
SD = 1.12) with
t (1868) = 3.46,
p = 0.001,
d = 0.16. Within all of the acculturation strategies this item scored the highest for both groups (mean scores of above 4 denoting quite high in agreement). This means that both groups of respondents were getting along just fine socially, while having friends from different cultures.
As for the other distinct differences within the
marginalization items, these results signified that there were slight differences between how the PRC and IS respondents personally felt. Although some scholars note that study abroad students’ social activities are somewhat related to their personalities [
63], these
marginalization items scored the lowest among all the other acculturation strategies, which is actually quite promising. In essence, even though some respondents felt that they were experiencing some marginalization, the majority of the time they were quite positive with regard to social interactions.
Various behavioral, cognitive, and affective situational changes are also shown in
Table 5 with Cronbach [
53] Alpha reliabilities ranging from 0.67 to 0.86 signifying appropriate to high levels of reliability [
54].
Results show that in general, students felt the various situational changes as partly to somewhat difficult to handle, with the mean factors scoring from the lowest
leisure living (
M = 1.88,
SD = 0.80) to the highest
local viewpoints (
M = 2.69,
SD = 0.96). These slight difficulties are actually understandable, since every encounter with a new culture is not without stress [
62,
64]. Furthermore, even though a PRC student basically speaks the same language as the Taiwan people (Mandarin Chinese), cultural differences still exist [
65], hence, some difficulties in understanding of the local viewpoints is but just normal.
To better understand the differences between the IS and PRC students’ behavioral, cognitive, and affective situational changes, independent-sample
t-tests were conducted.
Table 5 shows a majority of the differences falls on three factors (or categories)—
academic (IS with
M = 2.18,
SD = 0.80 and PRC with
M = 2.31,
SD = 0.87) with
t (1868) = 3.42,
p = 0.001,
d = 0.16,
leisure living (IS with
M = 1.84,
SD = 0.76 and PRC with
M = 1.93,
SD = 0.85) with
t (1868) = 2.51,
p = 0.012,
d = 0.12, and
daily living (IS with
M = 2.11,
SD = 0.91 and PRC with
M = 2.21,
SD = 0.94) with
t (1868) = 2.22,
p = 0.026,
d = 0.11 — all of which denote minimal effect sizes [
48].
All items with statistically significant differences appear to have PRC respondents perceiving slightly higher difficulty levels than their IS counterparts. More important, results show that PRC respondents were significantly experiencing more academic pressure. This might be partly due to parental educational aspirations exerted on PRC students [
66], PRC students’ pressure to return home upon graduation [
67], or their being overly grade conscious [
68].
Table 6 shows the Cronbach [
53] Alpha reliabilities of the SAAH factors ranging from 0.80 to 0.86 signifying high levels of reliability [
54]. Results suggest that both groups perceived everyday hassles as partly to almost difficult to handle with the mean factors scoring from the lowest
adverse feelings (
M = 2.08,
SD = 0.85) to the highest
communication difficulties (
M = 2.80,
SD = 1.23).
As for the comparison of SAAH factors between the PRC and the general group of respondents, independent-sample
t-tests show that only
communication difficulties was statistically different (IS with
M = 2.92,
SD = 1.21 and PRC with
M = 2.64,
SD = 1.23) with
t (1868) = 4.90,
p < 0.001,
d = 0.23 denoting with small effect size [
48]. The items within the factor
communication difficulties were significantly different with IS respondents experiencing higher difficulty levels (
Table 6 items: La01, La02, and La03). These results mirror previous findings, wherein the general population of study abroad students report a high level of difficulty for expressing themselves or communicating in Mandarin Chinese [
10].
Besides the abovementioned hassles, many Taiwan regulations are imposed that also create barriers in attracting PRC students. These include upon forfeiting student identity, the respective individuals must leave within 10 days; all study abroad students must leave Taiwan within a month of graduation; and study abroad students cannot enroll in courses and major areas of study related to national security.
In sum, these findings highlighted the various difficulties experienced by both IS and PRC students. More important, for the PRC students to become the future stewards of change various levels of positive interactions should be encouraged. In light of these findings, the current study suggests that study abroad educators should design projects, activities, and assignments to harness a complex view of culture, identity and locality and to recognize the pedagogical value of the study abroad experience for both PRC and local Taiwan students.