The Effect of Drying Temperature on the Phenolic Content and Functional Behavior of Flours Obtained from Lemon Wastes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Biological Material
2.2. Reagent
2.3. Drying of Biological Material
2.4. Analytical Methods
2.5. Drying Kinetic Parameters Determination
2.6. Extraction and Determination of Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
2.7. UPLC-PDA Analysis
2.8. UPLC-ESI-MS Analysis
2.9. Antioxidant Capacity
2.10. Antimicrobial Qualitative Test (AQT)
2.11. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)
2.12. Color Measurement
2.13. Shelf-Life Testing
2.14. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Effect of Temperature on Drying Kinetics Parameters and Moisture in Lemon Residues
3.2. Total Phenolic Content, Antimicrobial Activity and Antioxidant Capacity of Lemon Residues Flour Obtained at Different Temperatures
3.3. Phenolic Profile in Lemon Residue Flours Obtained from 40 °C to 110 °C
3.4. Changes of TPC during the Drying Process in Lemon Residue Flour at 50 °C and 110 °C
3.5. Changes on Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Capacity during the Drying Process in Lemon Residue Flour at 50 °C and 110 °C
3.6. Proximal Composition of Lemon Peel Residues Flours Obtained from Thermal Dehydration at 50 °C
3.7. The Shelf Life of Lemon Residue Flours Obtained from Thermal Dehydration at 50 °C
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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T (°C)/Drying Time (h) | Moisture Content (%) | Energy (Watts) | TPC 2 (mg GAE g−1 DW) | AQT 1 | Antioxidant Capacity 3 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | DPPH: TE 4 (mM TE g−1 DW) | ABTS: TE 4 (mM TE g−1 DW) | ||||
Initial/0 | 84.64 ± 0.13 e | 0 | 55.62 ± 0.14 e | + | +++ | ++ | 4.48 ± 0.38 a | 11.82 ± 0.21 a |
40/24 | 9.73 ± 0.13 c | 28,800 | 30.11 ± 0.32 a,b | + | +++ | + | 742.82 ± 46.04 f | 880.77 ± 10.76 b |
50/20 | 10.46 ± 1.54 d | 28,800 | 30.62 ± 1.13 a,b | ++ | +++ | ++ | 835.18 ± 37.49 g | 945.64 ± 20.00 e |
60/20 | 10.52 ± 0.09 d | 24,000 | 30.47 ± 1.13 a,b, | + | +++ | + | 516.31 ± 19.36 d | 885.62 ±7.58 b,c |
70/20 | 10.62 ± 0.32 d | 24,000 | 30.89 ± 1.13 a,b | + | +++ | + | 260.70 ± 63.13 b | 900.18 ± 2.17 b,c,d |
80/16 | 9.52 ± 0.06 c | 19,200 | 31.77 ± 2.59 b | + | +++ | + | 389.93 ± 85.45 c | 761.26 ± 15.35 a |
90/16 | 7.64 ± 0.33 b | 19,200 | 29.58 ± 1.06 a | + | ++ | + | 597.32 ± 68.36 g | 887.92 ± 9.57 b |
100/12 | 7.22 ± 0.22 b | 14,400 | 35.03 ± 0.29 c | + | +++ | + | 466.99 ± 3.49 d | 914.48 ± 13.39 d |
110/12 | 5.05 ± 0.52 a | 14,400 | 39.31 ± 2.57 d | ++ | +++ | ++ | 493.26 ± 3.66 d | 910.40 ± 8.44 c,d |
T (°C) | Phenolic Compounds (mg/g DW) | Uid*. Peaks | TPC (mg/g DW) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Caffeic Acid | Eriocitrin | Sinapic Acid | Naringin | Hesperidin | Naringenin | |||
Fresh | n/d | 23.17 ± 0.07 b | n/d | 5.37 ± 0.06 d | 20.62 ± 0.69 f | 1.46 ± 2.33 f | 1 | 50.62 ± 0.74 c |
40 °C | n/d | 12.54 ± 0.10 a | n/d | 2.24 ± 0.13 a | 15.22 ± 0.18 d | 0.19 ± 0.02 a | 1 | 30.19 ± 0.21 a |
50 °C | n/d | 13.67 ± 1.59 a | n/d | 2.96 ± 0.18 a,b | 16.14 ± 0.07 e | 0.90 ± 0.01 d | 1 | 33.67 ± 0.64 b |
60 °C | 2.33 ± 0.12 a | 11.59 ± 0.43 a | n/d | 2.35 ± 0.11 a | 13.37 ± 0.07 c | 0.52 ± 0.01 b | 1 | 30.16 ± 0.27 a |
70 °C | 5.89 ± 0.10 b | 12.75 ± 2.19 a | n/d | 3.81 ± 0.24 b,c | 11.28 ± 0.17 b | 0.81 ± 0.02 c | 1 | 34.54 ± 1.08 b |
80 °C | 17.06 ± 0.16 c | 11.89 ± 0.39 a | 2.43 ± 0.11a | 4.16 ± 0.14 b,c,d | 11.33 ± 0.20 b | 2.71 ± 0.01 h | 1 | 49.58 ± 2.41 c |
90 °C | 29.32 ± 0.06 d | n/d | 8.92 ± 0.03d | 9.45 ± 1.62 e | 11.25 ± 0.06 b | 2.06 ± 0.01 g | 2 | 61.00 ± 1.86 d |
100 °C | 39.07 ± 0.15 f | n/d | 4.69 ± 0.02b | n/d | 8.94 ± 0.08 a | n/d | 2 | 52.70 ± 0.25 c |
110 °C | 37.93 ± 0.04 e | n/d | 6.68 ± 0.07c | 4.55 ± 0.10 c,d | 8.39 ± 0.34 a | 1.07 ± 0 e | 2 | 61.47 ± 0.06 d |
T (°C)/Drying Time (h) | Moisture Content (%) | TPC (mg GAE g−1 D W) | Antimicrobial Activity (MIC) 1 (mg GAE g−1 D W) | Antioxidant Capacity | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S. typhimurium | S. aureus | E. coli | DPPH RSA 2 (%) Inhibition | TE 3 (mM TE g−1 DW) | |||
Initial/0 | 84.64 ± 0.13 h | 55.62 ± 0.2 f | 11.70 ± 0 b | 11.70 ± 0 a | 17.50 ± 8.20 b | 10.59 ± 0.91 a | 4.48 ± 0.38 |
50 °C/12 | 63.4 ± 2.2 g | 27.82 ± 0.9 a | 11.70 ± 0 b | 11.70 ± 0 a | 23.30 ± 0 c | 30.27 + 2.35 d | 298.96 + 56.13 |
50 °C/15 | 59.85 ± 1.0 f | 32.09 ± 0.5 b,c | 11.70 ± 0 b | 11.70 ± 0 a | 23.30 ± 0.00 c | 55.76 ± 1.99 d,e | 561.44 ± 34.7 |
50 °C/18 | 40.12 ± 1.2 e | 29.41 ± 1.3 a,b | 11.70 ± 0 b | 11.70 ± 0 a | 23.30 ± 0 c | 61.73 ± 1.55 e | 635.06 ± 27.03 |
50 °C/21 | 19.25 ± 0.7 c | 28.32 ± 0.6 a | 5.80 ± 0 a | 11.70 ± 0 a | 17.50 ± 8.20 b | 71.50 ± 1.18 f | 755.52 ± 20.58 |
50 °C/24 | 10.46 ± 1.5 b | 31.40 ± 0.1 b,c | 5.80 ± 0 a | 11.70 ± 0 a | 11.70 ± 0 a | 73.73 ± 1.12 f | 783.02 ± 19.53 |
110 °C/4 | 24.12 + 1.3 d | 34.17 + 0.6 d | 23.30 ± 0.00 d | 23.30 ± 0.0 c | 23.30 ± 0.00 c | 21.70 + 0.92 b | 141.47 + 16.04 |
110 °C/6 | 21.58 + 1.5 c | 31.85 + 0.8 b,c | 17.50 ± 8.20 c | 17.50 ± 8.2 b | 17.50 ± 8.20 b | 37.69 + 1.72 c | 338.63 + 29.99 |
110 °C/8 | 6.96 + 2.1 a | 33.12 + 1.1 c,d | 17.50 ± 8.20 c | 17.50 ± 8.2 b | 11.70 ± 0.00 a | 47.43 + 2.29 d | 458.73 + 39.93 |
110 °C/12 | 5.62 + 1.3 a | 39.05 + 0.9 e | 5.80 ± 0.00a | 11.70 ± 0.0 a | 11.70 ± 0.00 a | 50.07 + 5.15 d | 491.28 + 89.81 |
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Patrón-Vázquez, J.; Baas-Dzul, L.; Medina-Torres, N.; Ayora-Talavera, T.; Sánchez-Contreras, Á.; García-Cruz, U.; Pacheco, N. The Effect of Drying Temperature on the Phenolic Content and Functional Behavior of Flours Obtained from Lemon Wastes. Agronomy 2019, 9, 474. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy9090474
Patrón-Vázquez J, Baas-Dzul L, Medina-Torres N, Ayora-Talavera T, Sánchez-Contreras Á, García-Cruz U, Pacheco N. The Effect of Drying Temperature on the Phenolic Content and Functional Behavior of Flours Obtained from Lemon Wastes. Agronomy. 2019; 9(9):474. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy9090474
Chicago/Turabian StylePatrón-Vázquez, Jesús, Lizzie Baas-Dzul, Nelly Medina-Torres, Teresa Ayora-Talavera, Ángeles Sánchez-Contreras, Ulises García-Cruz, and Neith Pacheco. 2019. "The Effect of Drying Temperature on the Phenolic Content and Functional Behavior of Flours Obtained from Lemon Wastes" Agronomy 9, no. 9: 474. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy9090474