Next Article in Journal
Study of Disaster Susceptibility and Economic Vulnerability to Strengthen Disaster Risk Reduction Instruments in Batu City, Indonesia
Previous Article in Journal
Coastal Wetland Vegetation Classification Using Pixel-Based, Object-Based and Deep Learning Methods Based on RGB-UAV
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Land
Volume 11
Issue 11
10.3390/land11112038
land-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Drought- and Salt-Tolerant Plants of the Mediterranean and Their Diverse Applications: The Case of Crete

by
Irene Christoforidi
1,2,
Dimitrios Kollaros
1,
Thrassyvoulos Manios
1 and
Ioannis N. Daliakopoulos
1,*
1
Department of Agriculture, Hellenic Mediterranean University, 71410 Heraklion, Greece
2
Farm Directorate, Hellenic Mediterranean University, 71410 Heraklion, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Land 2022, 11(11), 2038; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/land11112038
Submission received: 8 October 2022 / Revised: 3 November 2022 / Accepted: 9 November 2022 / Published: 14 November 2022
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Drought and salinity are two of the most urgent challenges faced in Mediterranean ecosystems, equally impacting natural systems, agricultural crops, and urban green. While many technical and soft approaches have been proposed to anticipate, mitigate, and remediate these impacts, a class of solutions has possibly been in front of us all along. Native Mediterranean fauna is well adapted, and when properly established still has unexploited conservation, restoration, and production diversification potential. Here, we outline the results of a long-term experiment taking place on the island of Crete, Greece that started in 1996 and involves over 70 native Mediterranean plants planted and monitored in various green spaces (private, shared, public) and a university campus under a diversity of adverse topographies (e.g., coastal, steep slopes), soils (e.g., disturbed, nutrient-deficient), and microclimatic conditions, taking various plant formations and serving various functions. After plant establishment, drought and salinity resistance were evaluated by gradually exposing plants (n = 5249) to deficit irrigation and saline environmental conditions, and plants were followed up for at least 5 years to empirically assess their ability to cope with abiotic stress. From the Mediterranean plants that were planted and tested, 52 were singled out because of their resistance and additional favorable traits. Motivated by this long-term assessment, a systematic literature review was conducted using the protocol Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) to validate empirical results, determine which were still unexplored, and bring to light additional uses. Results showed that 41 of the plants included in this research have significant medicinal properties, 26 have nutritional uses, 17 industrial uses, and 18 have evidence of cosmetology uses. Additionally, the empirical assessment gave new evidence of at least 40 new species–trait combinations. By formally documenting the characteristics of these native Mediterranean plants, this work highlights their versatile traits, and the prospect of creating new uses and value chains enables, for the first time their inclusion in planting-decision support systems and aims to increase demand and facilitate the scaling up of native greening in the context of sustainable land and water management within and beyond the Mediterranean basin.

1. Introduction

Climate change is expected to have a significant impact on global hydroclimatic patterns [1,2]. The Mediterranean coast and islands will be at the epicenter of these changes [3,4], with climate-model projections indicating a strong susceptibility to water stress [5,6] and a corresponding increase in the frequency and intensity of droughts [7]. It is characteristic that for the climatic scenario Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5, the end of the 21st century finds most of the Mediterranean regions drier by at least one category on the aridity index scale [8]. Increasing irrigation to cover vegetation evapotranspiration requirements under the low natural leaching frequency experienced in arid zones will inadvertently lead to salinity accumulation in the soil [9]. In the Mediterranean regions, this is already a harsh reality [10], with 25% of irrigated agricultural land being affected by a significant level of salinization, leading to moderate soil degradation [11]. It is therefore evident that droughts, heat extremes, and soil salinization are among the most urgent challenges faced in the Mediterranean.
The effects of drought and salinity on growth and physiological activity of plants can be temporary or permanent and may even impact production sustainability, especially in southern Mediterranean areas [12,13,14]. In agricultural land, drought and salinity force farmers to switch crops or cultivation systems, which can increase production costs or lead to crop-yield reduction [15]. Furthermore, in urban green spaces (UGSs), rather than following scientific approaches [16,17,18], the selection of plants is usually based mainly on aesthetic value, without assigning significant weight to their water and salinity stress tolerance. Besides the resulting increased maintenance costs and water consumption, these plants suffer a limited life span and are projected to be the first to perish under current pressures or during future increased extremes [2,8]. Under these circumstances, plant selection is crucial in all human-managed ecosystems, both for the sustainability of the ecosystem and the derided ecosystem services (ESSs) relevant to biomass production, as well as water and soil management [19].
Natural adaptation solutions already exist in the genetic pool of the Mediterranean flora itself, which thrives in a variety of habitats ranging from the most fertile areas to steep slopes with shallow drained soils. For example, Mediterranean plants show a reduction of leaves or seasonal dimorphism where the large winter leaves turn into small and fluffy leaves in the summer to adapt to prolonged dry and hot periods [20,21,22]. In addition, these species are constantly subject to other environmental pressures, such as long sunlight hours and nutrient deficiency, and have developed the ability to survive activating adaptation mechanisms and strategies [23,24]. Mediterranean vegetation (garrigue, maquis and Mediterranean forests), evergreen shrubs, and trees with leathery leaves (hardwoods), are found even beyond the Mediterranean basin [22,25]. Many of these native plant species have important medicinal and therapeutic properties [26,27,28], high nutritional value [29,30], high cultivation value, and various uses from the past to the present. In addition, many of the native plants are characterized by special ornamental value (e.g., flower, foliage, shoot color) and find many uses in landscape architecture [22]. In many cases, these species are hiding in plain sight, and are thus sporadically studied, with some of their traits—mainly those associated with their nutritional and aesthetic value—being neglected. These traits and uses, which could also be interesting as alternative and sustainable crops, have only been sporadically documented and while several plant databases (e.g., [31,32,33,34]) and plant selection tools (e.g., [35,36,37,38]) exist, to our knowledge no work has focused on Mediterranean plants.
Here, we outline the results of a long-term quantitative but mostly qualitative assessment, which started in 1996 and involves over 70 native Mediterranean plants planted and monitored in private green spaces, shared private green spaces (e.g., hotel gardens), public green spaces, and a university campus under different soil and microclimatic conditions on the island of Crete, Greece. Motivated by this long-term assessment, a systematic literature review of these plants was conducted to validate empirical results, determine which were still unexplored and bring to light additional uses that could motivate their wider adoption. We aspire that this work pushes further the conversation for the value of native species and provides a backdrop for better informed vegetation selection in agriculture, urban landscaping, and ecosystem restoration actions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Case Study

The island of Crete has an area of 8335 km2 and is the fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean, with over 600,000 inhabitants. Crete has a Mediterranean climate, characterized by cool wet winters and long, hot, and very dry summers [39]. The mountains of the island affect the weather variability, influencing the intensity and direction of the prevailing winds. The northern coasts are affected in the summer by the annual winds (meltemia with NE or NW direction), which are hot and dry. In addition, southern regions of the island are affected in the winter by southern dry and warm winds originating from Africa [40]. The island receives an average of 7.7 billion m3 of rainfall, of which only 10–15% ends up in surface runoff, while 68–76% evapotranspires and 14–17% infiltrates [41]. Crete, like other Mediterranean islands, is highly dependent on groundwater resources, a problem that is already exacerbated by rising temperatures due to climate change [41]. The soils of Crete are mainly of limestone origin, deep, moderate, shallow, rocky, and well drained [42,43]. The main sources of soil salinity in Crete include coastal alluvium soils and proximity to the sea. In addition, the extremely rugged nature, dissolution, and erosion of limestone rock have created a wide variety of karst features [44] that often control the inflow of seawater into the coastal aquifer and pose challenges to hydrogeological modeling [45].

2.2. Plant Species Selection Criteria

From over 70 native Mediterranean plants that were planted and tested (near the sea, slopes, nutrient-deficient soils, plant formations, plant uses etc.; see Section 2.3—Empirical Assessment), 52 were selected because of their various favorable traits, elaborated upon later in this paper. The rest were excluded due to unfavorable traits, such as unpleasant smell (e.g., Artemisia arborescens L., Allium ampeloprasum L.), thorns or thorny shoots (e.g., Onopordum illyricum L., Genista acanthoclada DC.) and poor ornamental value (e.g., Erigeron bonariensis L.). The 52 native Cretan plants (most of them native to the Mediterranean region) used in the field research were 15 trees, such as Ceratonia siliqua L., Cupressus sempervirens L., and Laurus nobilis L., 16 shrubs, such as Arbutus unedo L., Myrtus communis, Nerium oleander, and 21 herbaceous, such as Borago officinalis L., Salvia fruticose, Sideritis syriaca subsp. Syriaca L., and Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. From the plants used in the research, endemic on the island of Crete are Zelkova abelicea (Lam.) Boiss., Ebenus cretica, Campanula cretica (A.DC.) D.Dietr., Origanum dictamnus L., and Petromarula pinnata L. A.DC.

2.3. Empirical Assessment

In October 1996, research began to evaluate the tolerance of several native plants and the ornamental value and uses in landscape architecture, which continues until today. The plantings took place in coastal areas, lowland and mountainous, with various microclimatic peculiarities across Crete (Figure 1). The plants were planted in urban, semiurban, and rural areas, in hotels, gardens, private and public spaces, school and church yards, squares, archeological sites, parks, sections of Motorway 90 (known as Northern Road Axis of Crete), shared, public–private open spaces of apartment buildings, terraces, verandas, tree planting of community roads, etc. Among the green spaces documented here, 17 are private green spaces planted exclusively with native plants of Crete, 32 are private green spaces planted with mixed native (majority) and imported plants, and 26 are public green spaces planted mainly with native plants of Crete, all covering an area over 500 m2 each. Of these green spaces, 20% are located in urban, 75% in semiurban, and 5% in natural areas (e.g., rural roadside tree lines). Documented green areas (private and public) with a total area of more than 0.2 ha are shown in Figure 1. In all cases, introduced native plants were at least one year old, depending on the requirements of the respective landscape architecture design, and planting was avoided during summer. Plants were introduced individually, in groups, clusters, tree lines, hedges, borders, rock gardens, flower beds, in free planting, or in combination with structural elements, etc., which allowed later determination of optimal configurations for each species. Irrigation in all green spaces was carried out using micro-irrigation techniques with emitters and driplines.
Drought resistance evaluation was carried out by gradually reducing the frequency of irrigation with irrigation extent depending on local soil conditions. Irrigation frequency started from once every second day for the first three months after planting, reduced to 2 to 3 times per week depending on seasonal climatic conditions until year 3 of establishment, further reduced to 1 to 2 times per week until year 5 of establishment, and eventually culminated in irrigation only in the summer months or complete cessation of irrigation in drought-resistant plants such as Nerium oleander L., Ceratonia siliqua L., and others. This gradual reduction of irrigation was intended to force plants to stimulate the development of a stronger root system [22,46]. During the experiment, it was unnecessary and exceedingly rare to give additional irrigation (except of the irrigation model mentioned) during the summer months after prolonged high temperatures (heatwaves). Supplementary irrigation was applied mainly to plants smaller than the fifth year of planting and in regions with difficult soil and microclimatic conditions. For the purposes of this study, plants that could withstand irrigation only in the summer months or less after the 5th year of establishment were considered drought-tolerant. Salinity tolerance was assessed at the green spaces located on the coastal front, which is directly exposed to various types of salt loading, such as sea salt aerosol, saline groundwater, sedimentary brines, etc. [11]. For the purposes of this study, plants that could withstand direct exposure to this environment for over 5 years were considered salinity-tolerant.
The scope of this work was to use native plants with reduced requirements, surviving under adverse conditions, without evaluating the growth rate. While imported species were also assessed, their evaluation is beyond the scope of this research. Nevertheless, for the sake of providing a comprehensive picture some of the problems experienced with nonnative plants are also discussed. Eventually, evaluation took place by checking the fulfilment of the requirements of the landscape architecture plan and with qualitative results based on interviews of owners of private green spaces and visitors of public and common-use green spaces.

2.4. Systematic Review

A systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method consisting of a checklist and a four-step process with key elements for a transparent and reproducible reporting of a systematic review [47]. The steps of PRISMA are: (1) search (the search string and database types are defined), (2) evaluation (inclusion and exclusion of literature items as well as quality assessment criteria are predetermined), (3) synthesis (data are extracted and categorized), (4) analysis (results and conclusions are presented) [48].

3. Results

3.1. Empirical Assessment

From 1996 until today, 52 native Cretan plants were investigated, planted, and tested for their tolerance and uses. The private and public landowners were very positive about the use of native plants in their areas of ownership or responsibility, as they were informed about the advantages of native plants and witnessed good aesthetic results. Native plants were assessed for shapes and forms not typically practiced and not documented in previous research. The pruning method determined the dimensions of the crown of a plant, influencing its use depending on the desired aesthetic and functional result. Native plants with small foliage and slow growth rates gave impressive results, such as the Querqus ilex L. tree, which was formed into a spherical bush (Figure 2).
Based on this assessment, Table 1 provides an overview of the possible shapes, forms, and functions of 52 native plants that are relevant to landscape architecture applications. From the list presented in Table 1, the most common forms were group or cluster planting, and pot planting (possible for all 52 plants, and for 45 out of 52 plants, respectively), and the rarest form that of high hedges (only seen in 15 out of 52 plants). The rarest function was that of providing shade (13 plants), since it is also limited to trees. The plants with the highest diversity in shapes, forms, and functions where Tamarix parviflora DC., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Quercus coccifera L., Pistacia lentiscus L., Nerium oleander L., Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss., Ebenus cretica L., and Crithmum maritimum L. The least versatile was Petromarula pinnata (L.) A. DC. (suggested only for group or cluster planting in flower beds, and rock gardens) and Rhamnus alaternus L. (suggested only for group or cluster planting, pot planting, and high hedges).

3.2. Systematic Review

Using the above empirical assessment as a starting point, information was collected from published literature databases accessible online (Science Direct, PubMed, Springer, and Google Scholar) and books (Greek and English) using keywords based on the genera and species of the 52 native Mediterranean plants. From the search results (6750) and 17 books and from those selected from publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals and plant databases (1120), duplicate entries were found (24). After reviewing the scientific publications, only the relevant publications were included (313), of which 38 concerned adverse soil and climatic condition tolerance, 62 of nutritional value, 161 medicinal use, 25 industrial application, and 27 cosmetology and dyeing application (Figure 3).

3.3. Abiotic Stress Tolerance

From the 52 plant species of this study, 29 plants were selected for long-term assessment and systematic literature review and were evaluated for abiotic stress tolerance. From these 29 Mediterranean plants, evidence has been documented (Table 2) of their tolerance to salinity (17 cases from the literature and 23 cases from the empirical assessment), tolerance to drought (21 cases from the literature and 27 cases from the empirical assessment), tolerance to nutrient-deficient soils (15 cases from the literature and 24 cases from the empirical assessment), and frugality (9 cases from the literature and 29 cases from the empirical assessment). In limited cases (6 for salinity, e.g., Borago officinalis L., 9 for drought, e.g., Cichorium spinosum L., and 5 for nutrient-deficiency, e.g., Hypericum perforatum L.), they were neither tested in this study nor found in the literature (column NT marked in Table 2), which means that potential properties of these pants still need to be investigated. According to the systematic review and assessment, the most tolerant trees in all salinity, drought, nutrient-deficient soils and with few maintenance requirements were the native Mediterranean Tamarix parviflora DC., Ceratonia siliqua L., Pinus pinea L., Cercis siliquastrum L., Cupressus sempervirens L. and Juniperus oxycedrus L., Examples of native Mediterranean bushes and shrubs tolerant in all salinity, drought, nutrient-deficient soils and with few requirements were Nerium oleander L., Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss., Spartium junceum L., and Rhamnus alaternus L. (Table 2). Figure 4 shows an example of a cut-and-fill restoration project that took place on high-limestone soils in HMU, where 566 individual plants from 15 native Mediterranean species (mostly Tamarix parviflora DC., Nerium oleander L., Cercis siliquastrum L., Viburnum tinus L., Ceratonia siliqua L., Pistacia lentiscus L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., and Hedera helix L.) and 5 alien species (mostly Elaeagnus pungens C. P. Thunb. Ex A. Murray, Lantana camara L., and Metrosideros excelsa Soland. Ex Gaertn.). After five years, native plants have survived and are resistant to arid, nutrition-deficient soils, reducing soil erosion. In addition, some alien species have also survived, but the results are not shown in the present study.

3.4. Additional Value of Mediterranean Plants

3.4.1. Nutrition

International gastronomy is often associated with the ethnobotanical background and especially the use of plants that combine beneficial properties (such as medicinal herbs) while reducing the use of salt in the preparation of dishes and increasing consumer acceptance and appreciation [30,94]. In this sense, Mediterranean plants are of great interest because of their important nutritional value and central role in the Mediterranean diet and its many health benefits [95]. Edible parts from native plants are usually leaves (e.g., Crithmum maritimum L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Borago officinalis L., Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav.) flowers (e.g., Borago officinalis L., Origanum onites L.), fruits (e.g., Arbutus unedo L., Myrtus communis L., Capparis spinosa L.), and bulbs (e.g., Muscari comosum (L.) Parl.). Many ways exist for using or cooking these plants, which can be dried, boiled, cooked in pies, used for tea, salads, and cooked with meat, fish, snails, etc. (Figure 5). Many of the edible native Mediterranean plants can also be grown in private gardens, flower beds, pots or planters, green roofs that produce food, and even in semiurban or urban areas in public or private spaces [96,97]. In addition, the food industry and many new diet trends use native Mediterranean plants for their antioxidant properties for immediate consumption or consumption after food processing [26,27,28,98]. According to the literature, in some native Mediterranean plants, e.g., Daucus carota L., the whole plant is edible [99] or can also be used for beverage, e.g., Arbutus unedo L. and Myrtus communis L. [100,101,102,103,104,105]. To the authors’ knowledge, 26 of the plants included in this research have nutritional uses (Table 3), but it is possible that more are used and not published.

3.4.2. Medicine

Native plants of the Mediterranean region are used for nutrition in Mediterranean diet and contribute significantly to maintaining good health and preventing serious chronic diseases [26,27,28,106]. Free radicals hinder many biological processes, and are the source of damage to lipids, proteins, membranes, and nucleic acids, thus causing a variety of diseases such as atherosclerosis, inflammation, cancer, cardiovascular disease, etc. [107]. A variety of plant products have important antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects against diseases that relate to free radicals, due to their contents in phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, and phenolic diterpenes [107]. In the last 2 decades, special emphasis has been placed on the natural antioxidant activity offered by the consumption of several native plants, which are rich in omega 3 fatty acids and antioxidants [108].
People in ancient times used plant parts for therapeutic purposes. The parts of the plants used in traditional medicine are mainly leaves, stems with leaves or upper part, seeds, flowers, buds, bark, bulbs, roots etc. with the leaves being usually the most widely used [109]. In addition, essential oils, produced from a variety of Mediterranean plants are secondary metabolites of plants that have various pharmacological properties, mainly antioxidants, antimicrobials or immunomodulators [110]. In our research, we worked on searching literature references for the 41 native Mediterranean plants for their significant medicinal properties (Table S1) and therapeutic activity in a variety of diseases, contributing significantly to human health and well-being. Table S1 lists the medicinal properties of these native plants, but it is possible that there are more and not published.

3.4.3. Industry

Besides nutritional value, the food industry takes advantage of the important antimicrobial activity of many native Mediterranean plants. For example, Borago officinalis L. has been used as a natural preservative in fresh pasta [111] and sausage production [112], and Rosmarinus officinalis L. as a preservative in various types of processed meat (pork, beef, lamb, and poultry), and fish [113,114]. Beyond the food industry, the gum that is produced from the carob seeds after peeling and grinding has been used in the production of photographic film, matches, paints, inks, and adhesives [115]. Also, generally, plant colors can come from different parts, for example the leaves (Rubia tinctorum L.), roots (Berberis cretica L.), bark (Quercus ilex L.), and petals (Dittrichia viscose (L.) Greuter), and contribute various colours such as blue (Olea europaea L.), red (Rubia tinctorum L.), yellow (Berberis cretica L.), green (Ditrichia viscose (L.) Greuter), brown (Quercus ilex L.), etc. [116], and have been traditionally used (and in some cases still are) for dyeing fibres or fabrics of animal and plant origin (e.g., Hypericum perforatum L. [117], Phillyrea latifolia L. [118], Quercus ilex L. [116], Spartium junceum L. [119]). In our research, we worked on searching literature references for the 52 native Mediterranean plants and we found evidence for industrial use for 17 plants shown on Table 4, but it is possible that there are more and not published. The plants with the most industrial uses and better documentation in the literature are Borago officinalis L., Ceratonia siliqua L., Myrtus communis L., and Rosmarinus officinalis L.

3.4.4. Cosmetology

In cosmetic production from plants leaves, flowers, essential oils, plant extracts and other selected ingredients of natural origin are used. They are used for many cosmetic productions that are used in face, hair, and body care products, such as soaps, shower gels, face, body creams, waxes, perfumes, sunscreens, shampoos, hair conditioners, hair masks, moisturizing lotions, soothing massage oils, etc. Natural cosmetics are products whose effectiveness is attributed to their herbal ingredients and the native plants of the Mediterranean offer proven uses or perspectives of innovation at various levels. A variety of products have now been marketed, utilizing, and highlighting the uses of Mediterranean plants (e.g., BioSelect, Athens, GR; Agrecofarms, Rethymno, GR; Cretanbee, Agios Nikolaos, GR). Evidence of cosmetology use of 18 native Mediterranean plants is shown in Table 5, but it is possible that there are more which have not been published.
Table
Table 3. Nutritional use of Mediterranean plants in the literature.
Table 3. Nutritional use of Mediterranean plants in the literature.
PlantIndicative References of Nutritional Value
Arbutus unedo L.[103,120]
Borago officinalis L.[111,121,122]
Capparis spinosa L.[123,124]
Ceratonia siliqua L.[125,126,127,128,129]
Cichorium spinosum L.[63]
Crataegus monogyna[130,131]
Crithmum maritimum L.[132]
Daucus carota ssp maximus (Desf.) Ball[99,133,134]
Foeniculum vulgare Hill.[135]
Juniperus oxycedrus L.[136]
Laurus nobilis L.[137,138]
Lavandula stoechas L.[139]
Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss.[140,141,142]
Lupinus angustifolius L.[143,144,145,146]
Melissa officinalis L.[147]
Muscari comosum (L.) Parl.[79,148]
Myrtus communis L.[104,105,149,150]
Origanum dictamnus[30,151,152,153]
Origanum onites L.[154,155,156]
Pinus pinea L.[157]
Pistacia lentiscus L.[158,159,160]
Pistacia terebinthus L.[161,162,163,164,165]
Rosmarinus officinalis L.[113,114,166,167,168]
Salvia fruticosa Mill.[169]
Satureja thymbra L.[170]
Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav.[171,172,173]
Table
Table 4. Industrial use of Mediterranean plants in the literature.
Table 4. Industrial use of Mediterranean plants in the literature.
PlantIndicative Reference of Industrial Use
Borago officinalis L.[111,112,174]
Ceratonia siliqua L.[115,128,129]
Crithmum maritimum L.[175]
Hypericum perforatum L.[117]
Juniperus oxycedrus L.[176]
Laurus nobilis L.[138]
Myrtus communis L.[104,105,149,150,177]
Origanum onites L.[156]
Phillyrea latifolia L.[118]
Pinus pinea L.[178]
Pistacia lentiscus L.[160]
Pistacia terebinthus L.[179]
Quercus ilex L.[116]
Rosmarinus officinalis L.[113,114,166,167,168]
Satureja thymbra L.[180]
Spartium junceum L.[119]
Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav.[172,173]
Table
Table 5. Mediterranean plants in cosmetology in the literature.
Table 5. Mediterranean plants in cosmetology in the literature.
PlantIndicative Reference of Cosmetology Use
Capparis spinosa L.[55,181]
Ceratonia siliqua L.[128]
Crithmum maritimum. L.[175,182,183]
Daucus carota ssp maximus (Desf.) Ball[133,134]
Foeniculum vulgare Hill.[184]
Helichrysum orientale (L.) Gaertn[185]
Juniperus oxycedrus L.[136]
Laurus nobilis L.[138,186]
Lavandula stoechas L.[139]
Myrtus communis L.[104,105,149,150]
Origanum onites L.[155]
Phillyrea latifolia L.[118]
Pistacia lentiscus L.[160]
Pistacia terebinthus L.[165]
Rhamnus alaternus L.[187]
Rosmarinus officinalis L.[166,167,168]
Satureja thymbra L.[188,189]
Spartium junceum L.[90]

4. Discussion

Nowadays, many of the native plants used in the past have gained the interest of the wider scientific community by presenting a variety of uses, which can be a very interesting cultivation proposal for an innovative and sustainable economy. Current trends in the food science industry and consumers’ preferences for diversified diets suggest the consumption of many native Mediterranean plants not only as diet complements but also as healthy medicinal foods for targeted conditions. The current movement in the industry of food science, as well as consumer preference for higher dietary diversification, point to the consumption of many native Mediterranean plants not just as dietary supplements, but also as healthy “prescription” diets for targeted conditions. These plants with limited needs for irrigation and high resistance to adverse conditions are considered as commercial cultivation of major importance. The increased consumption of insufficient water in many arid regions of the planet, can function as a deterrent to many inadequate or demanding imported plant species. In the Mediterranean region, with the forthcoming climate change and increase of temperature and drought, there is growing interest in native Mediterranean plants, which have already been tested in extreme temperature and dry conditions. In addition, the native plants are offered for several profitable business crops and also plantings in the urban environment with significant, positive ESSs.
In the empirical assessment part of this work, 52 native Mediterranean plants were evaluated for use primarily in landscape architecture. According to interviews of owners of private green spaces and visitors of public and common use green spaces where this vegetation was established, it was notable that native Mediterranean plants fulfil the aesthetic purpose and can be used in private and public green spaces. The adequate aesthetic value of Mediterranean plants for public and private green spaces has been previously demonstrated in the literature [17,18,190], and can be attributed to their full harmonization with the natural landscape and the capacity to blend in, update and preserve cultural heritage, thus appealing to non-material criteria. For example, trees such as Cercis siliquastrum L., Sambucus nigra L., Styrax officinalis L., and shrubs such as Nerium oleander L., Calicotome villosa (Poir.) Link, Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss., Vitex agnus-castus L., and herbaceous plants such as Daucus carota ssp maximus (Desf.) Ball, Borago officinalis L. and Campanula cretica (A.DC.) D.Dietr. combine an impressive flowering and ornamental foliage suitable for a variety of uses in landscape architecture. Apart from their aesthetic value, adaptation to adverse soil and climatic conditions and irrigation limitations, frugal plant protection and maintenance, significantly reduce maintenance costs and make native Mediterranean plants ideal for use in UGSs. For these plants, deficit irrigation may inhibit growth and result to a stable compact plant form, and facilitate easier landscape management [191].
Furthermore, according to our systematic review and assessment, 29 of the discussed native Mediterranean plants were evaluated as tolerant to abiotic stress. Despite the different microclimatic conditions in every region in the Mediterranean basin, plants tolerant in abiotic stress, are preferable and more effective for farmers and landscapers. In Mediterranean regions, drought stress limits plant growth, and survival is threatened due to lack of rainfall and high temperatures in summer that impose extreme stress conditions [8,191] and a critical threat to world food security in the future. Also, coastal alluvium soils and proximity to the sea, increase salinity and stress to the plants. In our research, many of the Mediterranean plants that have been studied show significant resistance to drought, sea water spray, salinity, planting near the sea and strong winds. The continuing trend of global warming is predicted to cause significant changes in the climatic characteristics of several regions and in particular, the Mediterranean region it is expected to undergo a significant reduction in rainfall with more extremely dry and hot periods [192]. In Mediterranean areas, agriculture and green spaces will have to suffer drier, hotter, and longer summers, and therefore more attention should be given to water use and plant selection.
Alien flora and imported plant species were also assessed and compared with native plants. Some of the problems experienced with nonnative plants were in terms of increased maintenance costs (irrigation, nutrition, plant protection, cultivation requirements) and resistance to current microclimatic conditions (drought, poor soils, salinity, planting near the sea, strong winds, etc.). Moreover, many plants dried up completely from the first year (or second summer if planting took place late with lower temperatures), like Leptospermum sp., which gradually stopped being used in Crete, especially in some costal arias. Nonnative plants that survived faced increased problems with calcareous soil (e.g., Callistemon sp. Camellia sp.) or entomological infestations (e.g., Pittosporum sp.) or problems with their extensive root system and the unsuitable planting sites (e.g., Ficus sp.) or maintenance problems (e.g., Yucca sp.). In addition, some imported plants have caused extent entomological problems by invasive alien pests, such as Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, which has caused enormous damages to cultivated palms across the Mediterranean [193]. Furthermore, some nonnative plants such as Eucalyptus sp. and Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle, have become weeds [194,195], and pose threats to the local ecosystem because of their efficiency in abstracting water (to the extent that they are a known threat to infrastructure and monuments), as well as allelopathic effects due their high concentration in terpenes [196] and quassinoids [197], respectively. For this reason, before planting it is always advisable to consult the most recent alien species list [198], and also consider which native species can substitute this alien counterpart in terms of functions and aesthetic result, as shown in Table 6. Nevertheless, substitution of such species is not always straightforward as they now also carry some cultural value, and a landscape architecture study is required on a case-by-case basis.
The establishment of native Mediterranean plants in the Mediterranean biome for cultivation or landscaping of UGSs can significantly contribute to biodiversity conservation [199] and the restoration of ecological balance. Their proven tolerance to conditions of increased salinity and drought, renders them imperative for the success and sustainability of ecosystem restoration actions, and the exploitation of low-productivity or marginal land, now as well as under future climate induced stresses. This way the employment of native Mediterranean plants offers superior, long-term, and cost-effective regulatory ecosystem services (ESSs) [200] and ecological benefits [201], and leads to healthier local communities and positive effects on their well-being [202,203,204].
Finally, the need of natural capital protection and ESSs is crucial achieving the goals of sustainable development. At the same time, there is a global need for solutions based on nature to significantly alleviate pressures on environmental, economic, and social challenges. Native Mediterranean plants offer superior nature-based solutions, ranging from UGSs, applications to reforestation programs, and community forestry, and expanding their applications is well aligned with European Union (EU) actions focused on a smart, sustainable, and inclusive economy, with strategies for biodiversity and green infrastructure in the context of the Europe 2020 development strategy [205].

5. Conclusions

This work provides a framework for organizing native Mediterranean vegetation properties and functions that can be used as a basis for prioritizing and selecting native plants for various land-management purposes, such as landscaping, agriculture, and ecosystem restoration in the Mediterranean. Through the application of this framework on the island of Crete, we highlight the multiple positive properties and diverse functions of native Mediterranean plants, both for agriculture and UGSs, and in the context of ecosystem preservation, ecosystem restoration, and crop production for diverse applications and markets (nutrition, medicine, industry, and cosmetology). For these prospects to flourish, a better understanding of a significant number of species still needs to be investigated for their tolerance to abiotic factors and possibly for other alternative uses. For native Mediterranean plants to be widely adopted, besides the need for wider dissemination, several barriers still need to be overcome, such as the availability of plants that are trade-licensed and compliant with cultivation protocols, the capacity of local communities to implement sustainable plant establishment and appreciate the upgraded ESSs, the availability of financial and policy tools for the implementation, and eventually access to postharvest and market solutions.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://0-www-mdpi-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/article/10.3390/land11112038/s1, Table S1: Medicinal uses of Mediterranean plants in the literature.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.C., I.N.D., and D.K.; methodology, I.C., I.N.D., D.K., and T.M.; validation, I.C.; formal analysis, I.C.; investigation, I.C.; resources, I.C.; data curation, I.C.; writing—original draft preparation, I.C. and I.N.D.; writing—review and editing, I.C., I.N.D., and D.K.; visualization, I.C. and I.N.D.; supervision, I.N.D. and D.K.; funding acquisition, I.N.D. and T.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work has received funding from REACT4MED: Inclusive Outscaling of Agro-Ecosystem Restoration Actions for the Mediterranean. The REACT4MED Project (grant agreement 2122) is funded by PRIMA, a program supported by Horizon 2020.

Data Availability Statement

Data available on request.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the land managers of the green spaces used in this study for agreeing to participate and sharing their perspective.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Blöschl, G.; Hall, J.; Viglione, A.; Perdigão, R.A.P.; Parajka, J.; Merz, B.; Lun, D.; Arheimer, B.; Aronica, G.T.; Bilibashi, A.; et al. Changing Climate Both Increases and Decreases European River Floods. Nature 2019, 573, 108–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Kreibich, H.; van Loon, A.F.; Schröter, K.; Ward, P.J.; Mazzoleni, M.; Sairam, N.; Abeshu, G.W.; Agafonova, S.; AghaKouchak, A.; Aksoy, H.; et al. The Challenge of Unprecedented Floods and Droughts in Risk Management. Nature 2022, 608, 80–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Nerantzaki, S.D.; Efstathiou, D.; Giannakis, G.v.; Kritsotakis, M.; Grillakis, M.G.; Koutroulis, A.G.; Tsanis, I.K.; Nikolaidis, N.P. Climate Change Impact on the Hydrological Budget of a Large Mediterranean Island. Hydrol. Sci. J. 2019, 64, 1190–1203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Tramblay, Y.; Koutroulis, A.; Samaniego, L.; Vicente-Serrano, S.M.; Volaire, F.; Boone, A.; le Page, M.; Llasat, M.C.; Albergel, C.; Burak, S.; et al. Challenges for Drought Assessment in the Mediterranean Region under Future Climate Scenarios. Earth Sci. Rev. 2020, 210, 103348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Ludwig, R.; Roson, R.; Zografos, C.; Kallis, G. Towards an Inter-Disciplinary Research Agenda on Climate Change, Water and Security in Southern Europe and Neighboring Countries. Environ. Sci. Policy 2011, 14, 794–803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Koutroulis, A.G.; Tsanis, I.K.; Daliakopoulos, I.N.; Jacob, D. Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources Status: A Case Study for Crete Island, Greece. J. Hydrol. 2013, 479, 146–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Dai, A. Increasing Drought under Global Warming in Observations and Models. Nat. Clim. Change 2012, 3, 52–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Daliakopoulos, I.N.; Panagea, I.S.; Tsanis, I.K.; Grillakis, M.G.; Koutroulis, A.G.; Hessel, R.; Mayor, A.G.; Ritsema, C.J. Yield Response of Mediterranean Rangelands under a Changing Climate. Land Degrad. Dev. 2017, 28, 1962–1972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Perri, S.; Molini, A.; Hedin, L.O.O.; Porporato, A.M. Contrasting Effects of Aridity and Seasonality on Global Salinization. In Proceedings of the AGU Fall Meeting, New Orleans, LA, USA, 13–17 December 2021. [Google Scholar]
  10. Iglesias, A.; Mougou, R.; Moneo, M.; Quiroga, S. Towards Adaptation of Agriculture to Climate Change in the Mediterranean. Reg. Environ. Change 2011, 11, 159–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Daliakopoulos, I.N.; Tsanis, I.K.; Koutroulis, A.G.; Kourgialas, N.N.; Varouchakis, A.E.; Karatzas, G.P.; Ritsema, C.J. The Threat of Soil Salinity: A European Scale Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 573, 727–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Marañón-Jiménez, S.; Asensio, D.; Sardans, J.; Zuccarini, P.; Ogaya, R.; Mattana, S.; Peñuelas, J. Seasonal Drought in Mediterranean Soils Mainly Changes Microbial C and N Contents Whereas Chronic Drought Mainly Impairs the Capacity of Microbes to Retain, P. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2022, 165, 108515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Trabelsi, L.; Gargouri, K.; Ben Hassena, A.; Mbadra, C.; Ghrab, M.; Ncube, B.; Van Staden, J.; Gargouri, R. Impact of Drought and Salinity on Olive Water Status and Physiological Performance in an Arid Climate. Agric. Water Manag. 2019, 213, 749–759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Villani, L.; Castelli, G.; Piemontese, L.; Penna, D.; Bresci, E. Drought Risk Assessment in Mediterranean Agricultural Watersheds: A Case Study in Central Italy. Agric. Water Manag. 2022, 271, 107748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Cuevas, J.; Daliakopoulos, I.N.; del Moral, F.; Hueso, J.J.; Tsanis, I.K. A Review of Soil-Improving Cropping Systems for Soil Salinization. Agronomy 2019, 9, 295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Van Mechelen, C.; Dutoit, T.; Kattge, J.; Hermy, M. Plant Trait Analysis Delivers an Extensive List of Potential Green Roof Species for Mediterranean France. Ecol. Eng. 2014, 67, 48–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Christoforidi, I.; Kollaros, D.; Papadakaki, M.; Psaroudaki, A.; Antoniou, T.; Daliakopoulos, I.N. A Novel Index for Assessing Perceived Availability and Public Demand for Urban Green Space: Application in a Mediterranean Island. Urban Urban Green 2022, 69, 127498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Christoforidi, I.; Kollaros, D.; Papadakaki, M.; Psaroudaki, A.; Manios, T.; Daliakopoulos, I.N. Bringing the Wood and Scrub to the Mediterranean Urban Park. In Proceedings of the Terraenvision 2022, Utrecht, The Netherlands, 28 July 2022; pp. 154–155. [Google Scholar]
  19. Schwilch, G.; Lemann, T.; Berglund, Ö.; Camarotto, C.; Cerdà, A.; Daliakopoulos, I.; Kohnová, S.; Krzeminska, D.; Marañón, T.; Rietra, R.; et al. Assessing Impacts of Soil Management Measures on Ecosystem Services. Sustainability 2018, 10, 4416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Norström, E.; Katrantsiotis, C.; Smittenberg, R.H.; Kouli, K. Chemotaxonomy in Some Mediterranean Plants and Implications for Fossil Biomarker Records. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2017, 219, 96–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Butler, C.; Butler, E.; Orians, C.M. Native Plant Enthusiasm Reaches New Heights: Perceptions, Evidence, and the Future of Green Roofs. Urban Urban Green 2012, 11, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Nardini, A.; lo Gullo, M.A.; Trifilò, P.; Salleo, S. The Challenge of the Mediterranean Climate to Plant Hydraulics: Responses and Adaptations. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2014, 103, 68–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Salleo, S.; Nardini, A. Sclerophylly: Evolutionary Advantage or Mere Epiphenomenon? Plant Biosyst. 2000, 134, 247–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Seleiman, M.F.; Al-Suhaibani, N.; Ali, N.; Akmal, M.; Alotaibi, M.; Refay, Y.; Dindaroglu, T.; Abdul-Wajid, H.H.; Battaglia, M.L. Drought Stress Impacts on Plants and Different Approaches to Alleviate Its Adverse Effects. Plants 2021, 10, 259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Cowling, R.M.; Rundel, P.W.; Lamont, B.B.; Arroyo, M.K.; Arianoutsou, M. Plant Diversity in Mediterranean-Climate Regions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1996, 11, 362–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Andrade, J.M.; Faustino, C.; Garcia, C.; Ladeiras, D.; Reis, C.P.; Rijo, P. Rosmarinus Officinalis L.: An Update Review of Its Phytochemistry and Biological Activity. Future Sci. OA 2018, 4, FSO283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  27. Psaroudaki, A.; Dimitropoulakis, P.; Constantinidis, T.; Katsiotis, A.; Skaracis, G.N. Ten Indigenous Edible Plants: Contemporary Use in Eastern Crete, Greece. Cult. Agric. Food Environ. 2012, 34, 172–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Visioli, F.; Grande, S.; Bogani, P.; Galli, C. The Role of Antioxidants in the Mediterranean Diets: Focus on Cancer. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 2004, 13, 337–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Liolios, C.C.; Graikou, K.; Skaltsa, E.; Chinou, I. Dittany of Crete: A Botanical and Ethnopharmacological Review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2010, 131, 229–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Krigas, N.; Lazari, D.; Maloupa, E.; Stikoudi, M. Introducing Dittany of Crete (Origanum Dictamnus L.) to Gastronomy: A New Culinary Concept for a Traditionally Used Medicinal Plant. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2015, 2, 112–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Matthews, D.E.; Lazo, G.R.; Anderson, O.D. Plant and Crop Databases. Methods Mol. Biol. 2009, 513, 243–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Fraser, L.H. TRY—A Plant Trait Database of Databases. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2020, 26, 189–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Tankersley, B. Plant Databases Linked for Botanists and Gardeners. Nature 2006, 441, 574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  34. Fern, K. Plants for a Future: Edible & Useful Plants for a Healthier World; Permanent Publications: East Meon, UK, 1997. [Google Scholar]
  35. Vogt, J.; Gillner, S.; Hofmann, M.; Tharang, A.; Dettmann, S.; Gerstenberg, T.; Schmidt, C.; Gebauer, H.; van de Riet, K.; Berger, U.; et al. Citree: A Database Supporting Tree Selection for Urban Areas in Temperate Climate. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 157, 14–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Fremout, T.; Thomas, E.; Taedoumg, H.; Briers, S.; Gutiérrez-Miranda, C.E.; Alcázar-Caicedo, C.; Lindau, A.; Mounmemi Kpoumie, H.; Vinceti, B.; Kettle, C.; et al. Diversity for Restoration (D4R): Guiding the Selection of Tree Species and Seed Sources for Climate-Resilient Restoration of Tropical Forest Landscapes. J. Appl. Ecol. 2022, 59, 664–679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Ellis, E.A.; Nair, P.K.R.; Jeswani, S.D. Development of a Web-Based Application for Agroforestry Planning and Tree Selection. Comput. Electron. Agric. 2005, 49, 129–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Reeves, M.; Maher, A.T.; Bentrup, G.; Dosskey, M.G. Tree Advisor: A Novel Woody Plant Selection Tool to Support Multifunctional Objectives. Land 2022, 11, 397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Barredo, J.I.; Caudullo, G.; Dosio, A. Mediterranean Habitat Loss under Future Climate Conditions: Assessing Impacts on the Natura 2000 Protected Area Network. Appl. Geogr. 2016, 75, 83–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. NHMC. Ecotourism Guide of the Main Wetlands of Crete; Natural History Museum of Crete, Project LIFE00ENV/GR/000685. Available online: https://www.nhmc.uoc.gr/sites/default/files/oikotouristikos_odigos.pdf. (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  41. Koutroulis, A.G.; Grillakis, M.G.; Daliakopoulos, I.N.; Tsanis, I.K.; Jacob, D. Cross Sectoral Impacts on Water Availability at +2 °C and +3 °C for East Mediterranean Island States: The Case of Crete. J. Hydrol. 2016, 532, 16–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Boix, C.; Calvo, A.; Imeson, A.C.; Schoorl, J.M.; Soriano, M.D.; Tiemessen, I.R. The Impact of Climatic Change and Land Use on the Hydrological Response of Mediterranean Soils; a Study along a Climatological Gradient in Crete (Greece). Stud. Environ. Sci. 1995, 65, 767–770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. ESDAC ESDAC: Soil Map of Crete. Available online: https://esdac.jrc.ec.europa.eu/content/soil-map-crete (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  44. Steiakakis, E.; Vavadakis, D.; Kritsotakis, M.; Voudouris, K.; Anagnostopoulou, C. Drought Impacts on the Fresh Water Potential of a Karst Aquifer in Crete, Greece. Environ. Earth Sci. 2016, 75, 507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Malagò, A.; Efstathiou, D.; Bouraoui, F.; Nikolaidis, N.P.; Franchini, M.; Bidoglio, G.; Kritsotakis, M. Regional Scale Hydrologic Modeling of a Karst-Dominant Geomorphology: The Case Study of the Island of Crete. J. Hydrol. 2016, 540, 64–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Tsantilis, D. Crete a Continent on an Island. National History Museum- University of Crete, Typokreta: Heraklion, Greece, 2014. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  47. Liberati, A.; Altman, D.G.; Tetzlaff, J.; Mulrow, C.; Gøtzsche, P.C.; Ioannidis, J.P.A.; Clarke, M.; Devereaux, P.J.; Kleijnen, J.; Moher, D. The PRISMA Statement for Reporting Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses of Studies That Evaluate Health Care Interventions: Explanation and Elaboration. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 2009, 62, e1–e34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  48. Mengist, W.; Soromessa, T.; Legese, G. Method for Conducting Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis for Environmental Science Research. MethodsX 2020, 7, 100777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Georgakopoulou-Vogiatzi, C. Outdoor Ornamental Plants; Gartaganis: Thessaloniki, Greece, 2009; ISBN 9789606859007. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  50. Nikitidis, N. Greek Flora: Borago Officinalis. Available online: https://www.greekflora.gr/el/flowers/1688/Borago-officinalis (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  51. RHS Borago Officinalis|borage/RHS Gardening. Available online: https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/57301/i-borago-officinalis-i/details (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  52. Pistelli, L.; Fiumi, C.; Morelli, I.; Giachi, I. Flavonoids from Calicotome Villosa. Fitoterapia 2003, 74, 417–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Barhouchi, B.; Aouadi, S.; Abdi, A. Preparations Based on Minerals Extracts of Calicotome Villosa Roots and Bovine Butyrate Matter: Evaluation in Vitro of Their Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities. J. Mycol. Med. 2018, 28, 473–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Yiotis, C.; Manetas, Y.; Psaras, G.K. Leaf and Green Stem Anatomy of the Drought Deciduous Mediterranean Shrub Calicotome Villosa (Poiret) Link. (Leguminosae). Flora: Morphol. Distrib. Funct. Ecol. Plants 2006, 201, 102–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Tlili, N.; Elfalleh, W.; Saadaoui, E.; Khaldi, A.; Triki, S.; Nasri, N. The Caper (Capparis L.): Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Properties. Fitoterapia 2011, 82, 93–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Allaith, A.A.A. Assessment of the Antioxidant Properties of the Caper Fruit (Capparis Spinosa L.) from Bahrain. J. Assoc. Arab. Univ. Basic Appl. Sci. 2016, 19, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Cavallaro, V.; Barbera, A.C.; Maucieri, C.; Gimma, G.; Scalisi, C.; Patanè, C. Evaluation of Variability to Drought and Saline Stress through the Germination of Different Ecotypes of Carob (Ceratonia Siliqua L.) Using a Hydrotime Model. Ecol. Eng. 2016, 95, 557–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Zouari, N.; El Mtili, N. Effects of Ectomycorrhizal Fungal Inoculation on Growth and Rooting of Carob Tree (Ceratonia Siliqua L.). South Afr. J. Bot. 2020, 135, 181–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Gubbuk, H.; Gunes, E.; Ayala-Silva, T.; Ercisli, S. Rapid Vegetative Propagation Method for Carob. Not. Bot. Horti. Agrobot. Cluj Napoca 2011, 39, 251–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. RHS Ceratonia Siliqua|carob/RHS Gardening. Available online: https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/3403/i-ceratonia-siliqua-i/details (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  61. Zahreddine, H.G.; Struve, D.K.; Talhouk, S.N. Growth and Nutrient Partitioning of Containerized Cercis Siliquastrum L. under Two Fertilizer Regimes. Sci. Hortic. 2007, 112, 80–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Feghhi, J.; Teimouri, S.; Makhdoum, M.F.; Erfanifard, Y.; Abbaszadeh Tehrani, N. The Assessment of Degradation to Sustainability in an Urban Forest Ecosystem by GIS. Urban Urban Green 2017, 27, 383–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Petropoulos, S.A.; Fernandes, Â.; Ntatsi, G.; Levizou, E.; Barros, L.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. Nutritional Profile and Chemical Composition of Cichorium Spinosum Ecotypes. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 73, 95–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Klados, E.; Tzortzakis, N. Effects of Substrate and Salinity in Hydroponically Grown Cichorium Spinosum. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2014, 14, 211–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  65. Ben Amor, N.; Ben Hamed, K.; Debez, A.; Grignon, C.; Abdelly, C. Physiological and Antioxidant Responses of the Perennial Halophyte Crithmum Maritimum to Salinity. Plant Sci. 2005, 168, 889–899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Meot-Duros, L.; Magné, C. Antioxidant Activity and Phenol Content of Crithmum Maritimum L. Leaves. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2009, 47, 37–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Patlis, G. Agricultural Plant Guide; Stamoulis: Athens, Greece, 2003; ISBN 9789603514350. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  68. Strid, A. Atlas of the Aegean Flora. Part 1: Text & Plates; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2016; Volume 33, ISBN 978-392-180-0980. [Google Scholar]
  69. RHS Daucus Carota|wild Carrot/RHS Gardening. Available online: https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/24469/i-daucus-carota-i/details (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  70. Nikitidis, N. Greek Flora: Helichrysum Orientale. Available online: https://www.greekflora.gr/el/flowers/3669/Helichrysum-orientale (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  71. RHS Hypericum Perforatum|perforate St John’s Wort/RHS Gardening. Available online: https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/9021/i-hypericum-perforatum-i/details (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  72. ISC Invasive Species Compendium: Hypericum Perforatum (St John’s Wort). Available online: https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/28268 (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  73. Massei, G.; Watkins, R.; Hartley, S.E. Sex-Related Growth and Secondary Compounds in Juniperus Oxycedrus Macrocarpa. Acta Oecologica 2006, 29, 135–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Caudullo, G.; Welk, E.; San-Miguel-Ayanz, J. Chorological Maps for the Main European Woody Species. Data Brief 2017, 12, 662–666. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. El-Bakatoushi, R. Identification and Characterization of Up-Regulated Genes in the Halophyte Limoniastrum Monopetalum (L.) Boiss Grown under Crude Oil Pollution. J. Genet. Eng. Biotechnol. 2011, 9, 137–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  76. Acta Plantarum Galleria Della Flora—Limoniastrum Monopetalum. Available online: https://www.actaplantarum.org/galleria_flora/galleria1.php?aid=6001 (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  77. ISC Invasive Species Compendium: Lupinus Angustifolius (Narrow-Leaf Lupin). Available online: https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/31706 (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  78. Doussi, M.A.; Thanos, C.A. Ecophysiology of Seed Germination in Mediterranean Geophytes. 1. Muscari Spp. Seed Sci. Res. 2002, 12, 193–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Bonasia, A.; Conversa, G.; Lazzizera, C.; la Rotonda, P.; Elia, A. Weed Control in Lampascione—Muscari Comosum (L.) Mill. Crop Prot. 2012, 36, 65–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Welch, W.C. Table of Landscape Plants Suitable for the Gulf Coast. Available online: https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/southerngarden/landtable.html (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  81. Kantartzhs, Ν. Floriculture—Evergreen Ornamental Shrubs for Architecture and Landscape Architecture; IDIOTIKI: Thessaloniki, Greece, 1994; ISBN 9789607177056. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  82. Fielding, J.; Turland, N. Flowers of Crete; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: London, UK, 2005; ISBN 9781842460795. [Google Scholar]
  83. Kofinas, G. Greekflora: Phagnalon Rupestre Subsp. Graecum. Available online: https://www.greekflora.gr/el/flowers/3312/Phagnalon-rupestre-subsp-graecum (accessed on 1 October 2022).
  84. RHS Phillyrea Latifolia|Green Olive/RHS Gardening. Available online: https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/12668/i-phillyrea-latifolia-i/details (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  85. Flexas, J.; Gulías, J.; Jonasson, S.; Medrano, H.; Mus, M. Seasonal Patterns and Control of Gas Exchange in Local Populations of the Mediterranean Evergreen Shrub Pistacia Lentiscus L. Acta Oecologica 2001, 22, 33–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Tsalikidis, G. Agricultural Plants for Greek Gardens; Paratiritis: Thessaloniki, Greece, 1994; ISBN 9789602607381. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  87. Moussi, K.; Nayak, B.; Perkins, L.B.; Dahmoune, F.; Madani, K.; Chibane, M. HPLC-DAD Profile of Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Leaves Extract of Rhamnus Alaternus L. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 74, 858–866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Martínez, A.L.; González-Trujano, M.E.; Pellicer, F.; López-Muñoz, F.J.; Navarrete, A. Antinociceptive Effect and GC/MS Analysis of Rosmarinus Officinalis L. Essential Oil from Its Aerial Parts. Planta Med. 2009, 75, 508–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  89. PFAF Satureja Thymbra Thyme-Leaved Savory PFAF Plant Database. Available online: https://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Satureja+thymbra (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  90. Cerchiara, T.; Chidichimo, G.; Ragusa, M.I.; Belsito, E.L.; Liguori, A.; Arioli, A. Characterization and Utilization of Spanish Broom (Spartium Junceum L.) Seed Oil. Ind. Crops Prod. 2010, 31, 423–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Darras, A.I.; Kargakou, V. Postharvest Physiology and Handling of Cut Spartium Junceum Inflorescences. Sci. Hortic. 2019, 252, 130–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. RHS Royal Horticultural Society Gardening. Available online: https://www.rhs.org.uk/ (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  93. Polivkova, M.; Suman, J.; Strejcek, M.; Kracmarova, M.; Hradilova, M.; Filipova, A.; Cajthaml, T.; Macek, T.; Uhlik, O. Diversity of Root-Associated Microbial Populations of Tamarix Parviflora Cultivated under Various Conditions. Appl. Soil Ecol. 2018, 125, 264–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Ghawi, S.K.; Rowland, I.; Methven, L. Enhancing Consumer Liking of Low Salt Tomato Soup over Repeated Exposure by Herb and Spice Seasonings. Appetite 2014, 81, 20–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  95. Guasch-Ferré, M.; Willett, W.C. The Mediterranean Diet and Health: A Comprehensive Overview. J. Intern. Med. 2021, 290, 549–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Kazemi, F.; Abolhassani, L.; Rahmati, E.A.; Sayyad-Amin, P. Strategic Planning for Cultivation of Fruit Trees and Shrubs in Urban Landscapes Using the SWOT Method: A Case Study for the City of Mashhad, Iran. Land Use Policy 2018, 70, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Säumel, I.; Kotsyuk, I.; Hölscher, M.; Lenkereit, C.; Weber, F.; Kowarik, I. How Healthy Is Urban Horticulture in High Traffic Areas? Trace Metal Concentrations in Vegetable Crops from Plantings within Inner City Neighbourhoods in Berlin, Germany. Environ. Pollut. 2012, 165, 124–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  98. Warraich, U.-E.; Hussain, F.; Kayani, H.U.R. Aging—Oxidative Stress, Antioxidants and Computational Modeling. Heliyon 2020, 6, e04107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  99. Papoulias, T. The Wild Edible Grasses of the Mountain and the Plain; Psihalos: Athens, Greece, 1999; ISBN 9789607920447. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  100. Pallauf, K.; Rivas-Gonzalo, J.C.; del Castillo, M.D.; Cano, M.P.; de Pascual-Teresa, S. Characterization of the Antioxidant Composition of Strawberry Tree (Arbutus Unedo L.) Fruits. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2008, 21, 273–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  101. El Haouari, M.; López, J.J.; Mekhfi, H.; Rosado, J.A.; Salido, G.M. Antiaggregant Effects of Arbutus Unedo Extracts in Human Platelets. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2007, 113, 325–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  102. Caldeira, I.; Gomes, F.; Mira, H.; Botelho, G. Distillates Composition Obtained of Fermented Arbutus Unedo L. Fruits from Different Seedlings and Clonal Plants. Ann. Agric. Sci. 2019, 64, 21–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Aleksic, V.; Knezevic, P. Antimicrobial and Antioxidative Activity of Extracts and Essential Oils of Myrtus Communis L. Microbiol. Res. 2014, 169, 240–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  104. Papageorgiou, V.; Gardeli, C.; Mallouchos, A.; Papaioannou, M.; Komaitis, M. Variation of the Chemical Profile and Antioxidant Behavior of Rosmarinus Officinalis L. and Salvia Fruticosa Miller Grown in Greece. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 7254–7264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Gardeli, C.; Vassiliki, P.; Athanasios, M.; Kibouris, T.; Komaitis, M. Essential Oil Composition of Pistacia Lentiscus L. and Myrtus Communis L.: Evaluation of Antioxidant Capacity of Methanolic Extracts. Food Chem. 2008, 107, 1120–1130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Kennedy, J. Herb and Supplement Use in the US Adult Population. Clin. Ther. 2005, 27, 1847–1858. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Bhouri, W.; Boubaker, J.; Kilani, S.; Ghedira, K.; Chekir-Ghedira, L. Flavonoids from Rhamnus Alaternus L. (Rhamnaceae): Kaempferol 3-O-β-Isorhamninoside and Rhamnocitrin 3-O-β-Isorhamninoside Protect against DNA Damage in Human Lymphoblastoid Cell and Enhance Antioxidant Activity. South Afr. J. Bot. 2012, 80, 57–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Zeghichi, S.; Kallithraka, S.; Simopoulos, A.P. Nutritional Composition of Molokhia (Corchorus Olitorius) and Stamnagathi (Cichorium Spinosum). World Rev Nutr Diet 2003, 91, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  109. Bouyahya, A.; Abrini, J.; Et-Touys, A.; Bakri, Y.; Dakka, N. Indigenous Knowledge of the Use of Medicinal Plants in the North-West of Morocco and Their Biological Activities. Eur. J. Integr. Med. 2017, 13, 9–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Juhás, Š.; Bukovská, A.; Čikoš, Š.; Czikková, S.; Fabian, D.; Koppel, J. Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Rosmarinus Officinalis Essential Oil in Mice. Acta Vet. Brno 2009, 78, 121–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  111. Miceli, A.; Francesca, N.; Moschetti, G.; Settanni, L. The Influence of Addition of Borago Officinalis with Antibacterial Activity on the Sensory Quality of Fresh Pasta. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2015, 2, 93–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  112. de Ciriano, M.G.-I.; García-Herreros, C.; Larequi, E.; Valencia, I.; Ansorena, D.; Astiasarán, I. Use of Natural Antioxidants from Lyophilized Water Extracts of Borago Officinalis in Dry Fermented Sausages Enriched in ω-3 PUFA. Meat Sci. 2009, 83, 271–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  113. Hernández, M.D.; Sotomayor, J.A.; Hernández, Á.; Jordán, M.J. Rosemary (Rosmarinus Officinalis L.) Oils. In Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 677–688. [Google Scholar]
  114. Hernández-Hernández, E.; Ponce-Alquicira, E.; Jaramillo-Flores, M.E.; Guerrero Legarreta, I. Antioxidant Effect Rosemary (Rosmarinus Officinalis L.) and Oregano (Origanum Vulgare L.) Extracts on TBARS and Colour of Model Raw Pork Batters. Meat Sci. 2009, 81, 410–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  115. MOAC. Tree of the Year 2008—Carob Tree (Ceratonia Siliqua L.); Department of Forests, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment of Cyprus: Nicosia, Cyprus, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  116. HTEA H Βαφική Παραδοσιακή Τέχνη Στην Κρήτη. Available online: http://www.texeng.gr/index.php/en/sector-articles/57-fysikes-vafes1 (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  117. PFAF Hypericum Perforatum St. John’s Wort, Common St. Johnswort PFAF Plant Database. Available online: https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Hypericum+perforatum (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  118. Longo, L.; Scardino, A.; Vasapollo, G. Identification and Quantification of Anthocyanins in the Berries of Pistacia Lentiscus L., Phillyrea Latifolia L. and Rubia Peregrina L. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2007, 8, 360–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Kovačević, Z.; Bischof, S.; Vujasinović, E.; Fan, M. The Influence of Pre-Treatment of Spartium Junceum L. Fibres on the Structure and Mechanical Properties of PLA Biocomposites. Arab. J. Chem. 2019, 12, 449–463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  120. Celikel, G.; Demirsoy, L.; Demirsoy, H. The Strawberry Tree (Arbutus Unedo L.) Selection in Turkey. Sci. Hortic. 2008, 118, 115–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Zemmouri, H.; Ammar, S.; Boumendjel, A.; Messarah, M.; El Feki, A.; Bouaziz, M. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Borago Officinalis L. Leaf Extract Growing in Algeria. Arab. J. Chem. 2019, 12, 1954–1963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Fernandes, L.; Pereira, J.A.; Saraiva, J.A.; Ramalhosa, E.; Casal, S. Phytochemical Characterization of Borago Officinalis L. and Centaurea Cyanus L. during Flower Development. Food Res. Int. 2019, 123, 771–778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  123. Ng, T.B.; Lam, S.K.; Cheung, R.C.F.; Wong, J.H.; Wang, H.X.; Ngai, P.H.K.; Ye, X.; Chan, Y.S.; Fang, E.F. Therapeutic Use of Caper (Capparis Spinosa) Seeds. In Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2011; pp. 279–284. ISBN 9780123756886. [Google Scholar]
  124. Romeo, V.; Ziino, M.; Giuffrida, D.; Condurso, C.; Verzera, A. Flavour Profile of Capers (Capparis Spinosa L.) from the Eolian Archipelago by HS-SPME/GC-MS. Food Chem. 2007, 101, 1272–1278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Lambraki, Μ. Ta Chorta; ΕΛΛHΝΙΚA ΓΡAΜΜAΤA: Atena, Greece, 2000; ISBN 9789603931843. (In Greek) [Google Scholar]
  126. Marakis, S. Carob Bean in Food and Feed: Current Status and Future Potentials: A Critical Appraisal. J. Food Sci. Technol. 1996, 33, 365–383. [Google Scholar]
  127. Rached, I.; Barros, L.; Fernandes, I.P.; Santos-Buelga, C.; Rodrigues, A.E.; Ferchichi, A.; Barreiro, M.F.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. Ceratonia Siliqua L. Hydroethanolic Extract Obtained by Ultrasonication: Antioxidant Activity, Phenolic Compounds Profile and Effects in Yogurts Functionalized with Their Free and Microencapsulated Forms. Food Funct. 2016, 7, 1319–1328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  128. Bernardo-Gil, M.G.; Roque, R.; Roseiro, L.B.; Duarte, L.C.; Gírio, F.; Esteves, P. Supercritical Extraction of Carob Kibbles (Ceratonia Siliqua L.). J. Supercrit. Fluids 2011, 59, 36–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Farag, M.A.; El-Kersh, D.M. Volatiles Profiling in Ceratonia Siliqua (Carob Bean) from Egypt and in Response to Roasting as Analyzed via Solid-Phase Microextraction Coupled to Chemometrics. J. Adv. Res. 2017, 8, 379–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  130. García-Mateos, R.; Ibarra-Estrada, E.; Nieto-Angel, R. Antioxidant Compounds in Hawthorn Fruits (Crataegus Spp.) of Mexico. Rev. Mex. Biodivers. 2013, 84, 1298–1304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Nabavi, S.F.; Habtemariam, S.; Ahmed, T.; Sureda, A.; Daglia, M.; Sobarzo-Sánchez, E.; Nabavi, S.M. Polyphenolic Composition of Crataegus Monogyna Jacq.: From Chemistry to Medical Applications. Nutrients 2015, 7, 7708–7728. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Renna, M.; Gonnella, M. The Use of the Sea Fennel as a New Spice-Colorant in Culinary Preparations. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2012, 1, 111–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  133. Maxia, A.; Marongiu, B.; Piras, A.; Porcedda, S.; Tuveri, E.; Gonçalves, M.J.; Cavaleiro, C.; Salgueiro, L. Chemical Characterization and Biological Activity of Essential Oils from Daucus Carota L. Subsp. Carota Growing Wild on the Mediterranean Coast and on the Atlantic Coast. Fitoterapia 2009, 80, 57–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chauhan, A. Chemical Composition Variability of Essential Oil during Ontogenesis of Daucus Carota L. Subsp. Sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 52, 809–814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Rather, M.A.; Dar, B.A.; Sofi, S.N.; Bhat, B.A.; Qurishi, M.A. Foeniculum Vulgare: A Comprehensive Review of Its Traditional Use, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Safety. Arab. J. Chem. 2016, 9, S1574–S1583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  136. Karaman, I.; Şahin, F.; Güllüce, M.; Öǧütçü, H.; Şengül, M.; Adigüzel, A. Antimicrobial Activity of Aqueous and Methanol Extracts of Juniperus Oxycedrus L. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2003, 85, 231–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Fernández, N.J.; Damiani, N.; Podaza, E.A.; Martucci, J.F.; Fasce, D.; Quiroz, F.; Meretta, P.E.; Quintana, S.; Eguaras, M.J.; Gende, L.B. Laurus Nobilis L. Extracts against Paenibacillus Larvae: Antimicrobial Activity, Antioxidant Capacity, Hygienic Behavior and Colony Strength. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2019, 26, 906–912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  138. Chahal, K.K.; Singh, D.K.; Panchbhaiya, A.; Singh, N.; Kaur, M.; Bhardwaj, U.; Singla, N.; Kaur, A. A Review on Chemistry and Biological Activities of Laurus Nobilis L. Essential Oil. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2017, 6, 1153–1161. [Google Scholar]
  139. Carrasco, A.; Ortiz-Ruiz, V.; Martinez-Gutierrez, R.; Tomas, V.; Tudela, J. Lavandula Stoechas Essential Oil from Spain: Aromatic Profile Determined by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, Antioxidant and Lipoxygenase Inhibitory Bioactivities. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 73, 16–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  140. Trabelsi, N.; Megdiche, W.; Ksouri, R.; Falleh, H.; Oueslati, S.; Soumaya, B.; Hajlaoui, H.; Abdelly, C. Solvent Effects on Phenolic Contents and Biological Activities of the Halophyte Limoniastrum Monopetalum Leaves. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2010, 43, 632–639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  141. Ksouri, R.; Megdiche, W.; Falleh, H.; Trabelsi, N.; Boulaaba, M.; Smaoui, A.; Abdelly, C. Influence of Biological, Environmental and Technical Factors on Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activities of Tunisian Halophytes. Comptes Rendus. Biol. 2008, 331, 865–873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. Lopes, A.; Rodrigues, M.J.; Pereira, C.; Oliveira, M.; Barreira, L.; Varela, J.; Trampetti, F.; Custódio, L. Natural Products from Extreme Marine Environments: Searching for Potential Industrial Uses within Extremophile Plants. Ind. Crops Prod. 2016, 94, 299–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Chapleau, N.; De Lamballerie-Anton, M. Improvement of Emulsifying Properties of Lupin Proteins by High Pressure Induced Aggregation. Food Hydrocoll. 2003, 17, 273–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  144. Sujak, A.; Kotlarz, A.; Strobel, W. Compositional and Nutritional Evaluation of Several Lupin Seeds. Food Chem. 2006, 98, 711–719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  145. Khan, M.K.; Karnpanit, W.; Nasar-Abbas, S.M.; Huma, Z.E.; Jayasena, V. Phytochemical Composition and Bioactivities of Lupin: A Review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 50, 2004–2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  146. Villarino, C.B.J.; Jayasena, V.; Coorey, R.; Chakrabarti-Bell, S.; Johnson, S.K. Nutritional, Health, and Technological Functionality of Lupin Flour Addition to Bread and Other Baked Products: Benefits and Challenges. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2016, 56, 835–857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  147. Dastmalchi, K.; Damien Dorman, H.J.; Oinonen, P.P.; Darwis, Y.; Laakso, I.; Hiltunen, R. Chemical Composition and in vitro Antioxidative Activity of a Lemon Balm (Melissa Officinalis L.) Extract. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 41, 391–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  148. PFAF Muscari Comosum Tassel Hyacinth, Tassel Grape Hyacinth PFAF Plant Database. Available online: https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=muscari+comosum (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  149. Tuberoso, C.I.G.; Rosa, A.; Bifulco, E.; Melis, M.P.; Atzeri, A.; Pirisi, F.M.; Dessì, M.A. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activities of Myrtus Communis L. Berries Extracts. Food Chem. 2010, 123, 1242–1251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  150. Wannes, W.A.; Marzouk, B. Characterization of Myrtle Seed (Myrtus Communis Var. Baetica) as a Source of Lipids, Phenolics, and Antioxidant Activities. J. Food Drug Anal. 2016, 24, 316–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  151. Chinou, I.; Liolios, C.; Moreau, D.; Roussakis, C. Cytotoxic Activity of Origanum Dictamnus. Fitoterapia 2007, 78, 342–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Kouri, G.; Tsimogiannis, D.; Bardouki, H.; Oreopoulou, V. Extraction and Analysis of Antioxidant Components from Origanum Dictamnus. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2007, 8, 155–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Liolios, C.C.; Gortzi, O.; Lalas, S.; Tsaknis, J.; Chinou, I. Liposomal Incorporation of Carvacrol and Thymol Isolated from the Essential Oil of Origanum Dictamnus L. and in Vitro Antimicrobial Activity. Food Chem. 2009, 112, 77–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  154. Alarcón, R.; Pardo-De-Santayana, M.; Priestley, C.; Morales, R.; Heinrich, M. Medicinal and Local Food Plants in the South of Alava (Basque Country, Spain). J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 176, 207–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  155. Bostancioĝlu, R.B.; Kürkçüoĝlu, M.; Başer, K.H.C.; Koparal, A.T. Assessment of Anti-Angiogenic and Anti-Tumoral Potentials of Origanum Onites L. Essential Oil. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50, 2002–2008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  156. Stefanakis, M.K.; Touloupakis, E.; Anastasopoulos, E.; Ghanotakis, D.; Katerinopoulos, H.E.; Makridis, P. Antibacterial Activity of Essential Oils from Plants of the Genus Origanum. Food Control 2013, 34, 539–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  157. Loewe-Muñoz, V.; Balzarini, M.; Álvarez-Contreras, A.; Delard-Rodríguez, C.; Navarro-Cerrillo, R.M. Fruit Productivity of Stone Pine (Pinus Pinea L.) along a Climatic Gradient in Chile. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2016, 223, 203–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  158. Charef, M.; Yousfi, M.; Saidi, M.; Stocker, P. Determination of the Fatty Acid Composition of Acorn (Quercus), Pistacia Lentiscus Seeds Growing in Algeria. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2008, 85, 921–924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  159. Kordali, S.; Cakir, A.; Zengin, H.; Duru, M.E. Antifungal Activities of the Leaves of Three Pistacia Species Grown in Turkey. Fitoterapia 2003, 74, 164–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  160. MOAC. Tree of the Year 2015—Lentisk, Pistacia Lentiscus L.; Department of Forests, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment of Cyprus: Nicosia, Cyprus, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  161. Özcan, M. Characteristics of Fruit and Oil of Terebinth (Pistacia Terebinthus L) Growing Wild in Turkey. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2004, 84, 517–520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  162. Orhan, I.E.; Senol, F.S.; Gulpinar, A.R.; Sekeroglu, N.; Kartal, M.; Sener, B. Neuroprotective Potential of Some Terebinth Coffee Brands and the Unprocessed Fruits of Pistacia Terebinthus L. and Their Fatty and Essential Oil Analyses. Food Chem. 2012, 130, 882–888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  163. Bolek, S.; Ozdemir, M. Optimization of Roasting Conditions of Pistacia Terebinthus in a Fluidized Bed Roaster. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 80, 67–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  164. Durmaz, G.; Gökmen, V. Changes in Oxidative Stability, Antioxidant Capacity and Phytochemical Composition of Pistacia Terebinthus Oil with Roasting. Food Chem. 2011, 128, 410–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  165. Topçu, G.; Ay, M.; Bilici, A.; Sarikürkcü, C.; Öztürk, M.; Ulubelen, A. A New Flavone from Antioxidant Extracts of Pistacia Terebinthus. Food Chem. 2007, 103, 816–822. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  166. Beretta, G.; Artali, R.; Facino, R.M.; Gelmini, F. An Analytical and Theoretical Approach for the Profiling of the Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils: The Case of Rosmarinus Officinalis L. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2011, 55, 1255–1264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  167. Borges, R.S.; Ortiz, B.L.S.; Pereira, A.C.M.; Keita, H.; Carvalho, J.C.T. Rosmarinus Officinalis Essential Oil: A Review of Its Phytochemistry, Anti-Inflammatory Activity, and Mechanisms of Action Involved. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2019, 229, 29–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  168. Ribeiro-Santos, R.; Carvalho-Costa, D.; Cavaleiro, C.; Costa, H.S.; Albuquerque, T.G.; Castilho, M.C.; Ramos, F.; Melo, N.R.; Sanches-Silva, A. A Novel Insight on an Ancient Aromatic Plant: The Rosemary (Rosmarinus Officinalis L.). Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 45, 355–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  169. Risaliti, L.; Kehagia, A.; Daoultzi, E.; Lazari, D.; Bergonzi, M.C.; Vergkizi-Nikolakaki, S.; Hadjipavlou-Litina, D.; Bilia, A.R. Liposomes Loaded with Salvia Triloba and Rosmarinus Officinalis Essential Oils: In Vitro Assessment of Antioxidant, Antiinflammatory and Antibacterial Activities. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 2019, 51, 493–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  170. Jancheva, M.; Grigorakis, S.; Loupassaki, S.; Makris, D.P. Optimised Extraction of Antioxidant Polyphenols from Satureja Thymbra Using Newly Designed Glycerol-Based Natural Low-Transition Temperature Mixtures (LTTMs). J. Appl. Res. Med. Aromat. Plants 2017, 6, 31–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  171. El-Jalel, L.F.A.; Elkady, W.M.; Gonaid, M.H.; El-Gareeb, K.A. Difference in Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Thymus Capitatus L. Essential Oil at Different Altitudes. Futur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2018, 4, 156–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  172. Faleiro, L.; Miguel, G.; Gomes, S.; Costa, L.; Venâncio, F.; Teixeira, A.; Figueiredo, A.C.; Barroso, J.G.; Pedro, L.G. Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities of Essential Oils Isolated from Thymbra Capitata L. (Cav.) and Origanum Vulgare L. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 8162–8168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  173. Goudjil, M.B.; Zighmi, S.; Hamada, D.; Mahcene, Z.; Bencheikh, S.E.; Ladjel, S. Biological Activities of Essential Oils Extracted from Thymus Capitatus (Lamiaceae). South Afr. J. Bot. 2020, 128, 274–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  174. Del Rio-Celestino, M.; Font, R.; de Haro-Bailón, A. Distribution of Fatty Acids in Edible Organs and Seed Fractions of Borage (Borago Officinalis L.). J. Sci. Food Agric. 2008, 88, 248–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  175. Meot-Duros, L.; Cérantola, S.; Talarmin, H.; le Meur, C.; le Floch, G.; Magné, C. New Antibacterial and Cytotoxic Activities of Falcarindiol Isolated in Crithmum Maritimum L. Leaf Extract. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2010, 48, 553–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  176. Özdemir, H. Dyeing Properties of Natural Dyes Extracted from the Junipers Leaves (J. Excelsa Bieb. and J. Oxycedrus L.). J. Nat. Fibers 2017, 14, 134–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  177. Ghaedi, M.; Tavallali, H.; Sharifi, M.; Kokhdan, S.N.; Asghari, A. Preparation of Low Cost Activated Carbon from Myrtus Communis and Pomegranate and Their Efficient Application for Removal of Congo Red from Aqueous Solution. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2012, 86, 107–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  178. Nasri, N.; Khaldi, A.; Fady, B.; Triki, S. Fatty Acids from Seeds of Pinus Pinea L.: Composition and Population Profiling. Phytochemistry 2005, 66, 1729–1735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  179. Kar, Y.; Şen, N.; Deveci, H. Usability of Terebinth (Pistacia Terebinthus L.) Fruits as an Energy Source for Diesel-like Fuels Production. Energy Convers. Manag. 2012, 64, 433–440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  180. Choulitoudi, E.; Bravou, K.; Bimpilas, A.; Tsironi, T.; Tsimogiannis, D.; Taoukis, P.; Oreopoulou, V. Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Satureja Thymbra in Gilthead Seabream Fillets Edible Coating. Food Bioprod. Process. 2016, 100, 570–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  181. Al-Safadi, B.; Elias, R. Improvement of Caper (Capparis Spinosa L.) Propagation Using in Vitro Culture and Gamma Irradiation. Sci. Hortic. 2011, 127, 290–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  182. Maoloni, A.; Milanović, V.; Osimani, A.; Cardinali, F.; Garofalo, C.; Belleggia, L.; Foligni, R.; Mannozzi, C.; Mozzon, M.; Cirlini, M.; et al. Exploitation of Sea Fennel (Crithmum Maritimum L.) for Manufacturing of Novel High-Value Fermented Preserves. Food Bioprod. Process. 2021, 127, 174–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  183. Cornara, L.; D’Arrigo, C.; Pioli, F.; Borghesi, B.; Bottino, C.; Patrone, E.; Mariotti, M.G. Micromorphological Investigation on the Leaves of the Rock Samphire (Crithmum Maritimum L.): Occurrence of Hesperidin and Diosmin Crystals. Plant Biosyst. 2009, 143, 283–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  184. Damjanović, B.; Lepojević, Ž.; Živković, V.; Tolić, A. Extraction of Fennel (Foeniculum Vulgare Mill.) Seeds with Supercritical CO2: Comparison with Hydrodistillation. Food Chem. 2005, 92, 143–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  185. PFAF Helichrysum stoechas—(L.)Moench. PFAF Plant Database. Available online: https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Helichrysum+stoechas (accessed on 9 July 2022).
  186. Marques, A.; Teixeira, B.; Nunes, M.L. Bay Laurel (Laurus Nobilis) Oils. In Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 239–246. ISBN 9780124166448. [Google Scholar]
  187. Pageon, H.; Azouaoui, A.; Zucchi, H.; Ricois, S.; Tran, C.; Asselineau, D. Potentially Beneficial Effects of Rhamnose on Skin Ageing: An in Vitro and in Vivo Study. Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 2019, 41, 213–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  188. Michaelakis, A.; Theotokatos, S.A.; Koliopoulos, G.; Chorianopoulos, N.G. Essential Oils of Satureja Species: Insecticidal Effect on Culex Pipiens Larvae (Diptera: Culicidae). Molecules 2007, 12, 2567–2578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  189. Öztürk, M. Anticholinesterase and Antioxidant Activities of Savoury (Satureja Thymbra L.) with Identified Major Terpenes of the Essential Oil. Food Chem. 2012, 134, 48–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  190. Ding, N.; Zhong, Y.; Li, J.; Xiao, Q. Study on Selection of Native Greening Plants Based on Eye-Tracking Technology. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  191. Toscano, S.; Ferrante, A.; Romano, D. Response of Mediterranean Ornamental Plants to Drought Stress. Horticulturae 2019, 5, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  192. Giorgi, F.; Lionello, P. Climate Change Projections for the Mediterranean Region. Glob. Planet. Chang. 2008, 63, 90–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  193. Bombi, P. Potential Conflict Extent between Two Invasive Alien Pests, Rhynchophorus Ferrugineus and Paysandisia Archon, and the Native Populations of the Mediterranean Fan Palm. J. Nat. Conserv. 2020, 58, 125927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  194. Celesti-Grapow, L.; Bassi, L.; Brundu, G.; Camarda, I.; Carli, E.; D’Auria, G.; Del Guacchio, E.; Domina, G.; Ferretti, G.; Foggi, B.; et al. Plant Invasions on Small Mediterranean Islands: An Overview. Plant Biosyst. Int. J. Deal. All Asp. Plant Biol. 2016, 150, 1119–1133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  195. D’Agata, C.D.C.; Skoula, M.; Brundu, G. A Preliminary Inventory of the Alien Flora of Crete (Greece). Bocconea 2009, 23, 301–315. [Google Scholar]
  196. Kanatas, P.; Kanatas, P. Potential Role of Eucalyptus Spp. and Acacia Spp. Allelochemicals in Weed Management. Chil. J. Agric. Res. 2020, 80, 452–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  197. Gómez-Aparicio, L.; Canham, C.D. Neighbourhood Analyses of the Allelopathic Effects of the Invasive Tree Ailanthus Altissima in Temperate Forests. J. Ecol. 2008, 96, 447–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  198. Korakaki, E.; Legakis, A.; Katsanevakis, S.; Koulelis, P.P.; Avramidou, E.V.; Soulioti, N.; Petrakis, P.V. Invasive Alien Species of Greece. Invasive Alien Species 2021, 124–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  199. Mathieu, R.; Freeman, C.; Aryal, J. Mapping Private Gardens in Urban Areas Using Object-Oriented Techniques and Very High-Resolution Satellite Imagery. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2007, 81, 179–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  200. Guillen-Cruz, G.; Rodríguez-Sánchez, A.L.; Fernández-Luqueño, F.; Flores-Rentería, D. Influence of Vegetation Type on the Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Green Areas in an Arid Zone of Northern Mexico. Urban Urban Green 2021, 62, 127135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  201. Helfand, G.E.; Sik Park, J.; Nassauer, J.I.; Kosek, S. The Economics of Native Plants in Residential Landscape Designs. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2006, 78, 229–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  202. Schmidt, K.; Walz, A.; Martín-López, B.; Sachse, R. Testing Socio-Cultural Valuation Methods of Ecosystem Services to Explain Land Use Preferences. Ecosyst. Serv. 2017, 26, 270–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  203. Mexia, T.; Vieira, J.; Príncipe, A.; Anjos, A.; Silva, P.; Lopes, N.; Freitas, C.; Santos-Reis, M.; Correia, O.; Branquinho, C.; et al. Ecosystem Services: Urban Parks under a Magnifying Glass. Environ. Res. 2018, 160, 469–478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  204. Lovell, R.; Wheeler, B.W.; Higgins, S.L.; Irvine, K.N.; Depledge, M.H. A Systematic Review of the Health and Well-Being Benefits of Biodiverse Environments. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B 2014, 17, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  205. Raymond, C.M.; Frantzeskaki, N.; Kabisch, N.; Berry, P.; Breil, M.; Nita, M.R.; Geneletti, D.; Calfapietra, C. A Framework for Assessing and Implementing the Co-Benefits of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Areas. Environ. Sci. Policy 2017, 77, 15–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Land 11 02038 g001 550
Figure 1. Private and public green spaces with an area of more than two acres that participated in the research evaluation of uses of native Mediterranean plants in landscape architecture. Shown green spaces (year of establishment) are: a. SPGS (2001), b. PGS (1997), c. HMU (2021), d. HMU (2021), e. PGS (2000), f. PGS (1998), g. PGS (1996), h. SPGS (1997), i. PubGS (2018), j. PGS (1997), k. and l. SPGS (1999), m. PGS (1996), n. PGS (1998), o. PGS (2002), p. HMU (2001), q. SPGS (1998), r. PubGS (2000), s. HMU (2021) and t. PGS (1999), where PGS: undisclosed private green space SPGS: undisclosed shared private green space (e.g., hotel, apartment, restaurant), PubGS: public green space, HMU: Hellenic Mediterranean University.
Figure 1. Private and public green spaces with an area of more than two acres that participated in the research evaluation of uses of native Mediterranean plants in landscape architecture. Shown green spaces (year of establishment) are: a. SPGS (2001), b. PGS (1997), c. HMU (2021), d. HMU (2021), e. PGS (2000), f. PGS (1998), g. PGS (1996), h. SPGS (1997), i. PubGS (2018), j. PGS (1997), k. and l. SPGS (1999), m. PGS (1996), n. PGS (1998), o. PGS (2002), p. HMU (2001), q. SPGS (1998), r. PubGS (2000), s. HMU (2021) and t. PGS (1999), where PGS: undisclosed private green space SPGS: undisclosed shared private green space (e.g., hotel, apartment, restaurant), PubGS: public green space, HMU: Hellenic Mediterranean University.
Land 11 02038 g001
Land 11 02038 g002 550
Figure 2. Native Mediterranean plants formed: Querqus ilex L. in (a) free and (b) spherical form. Myrtus communis L. in (c) a hedge and (d) spherical form. (e) Pistacia lentiscus L. as formed plant, (f) and Rhamnus alaternus L. as a hedge. Photos: I. Christoforidi.
Figure 2. Native Mediterranean plants formed: Querqus ilex L. in (a) free and (b) spherical form. Myrtus communis L. in (c) a hedge and (d) spherical form. (e) Pistacia lentiscus L. as formed plant, (f) and Rhamnus alaternus L. as a hedge. Photos: I. Christoforidi.
Land 11 02038 g002
Land 11 02038 g003 550
Figure 3. Diagram of the PRISMA method to search for resistance to adverse conditions for native plants and for added values: nutritional, medical, industrial, cosmetology and dye use.
Figure 3. Diagram of the PRISMA method to search for resistance to adverse conditions for native plants and for added values: nutritional, medical, industrial, cosmetology and dye use.
Land 11 02038 g003
Land 11 02038 g004 550
Figure 4. Restoration of a cut-and-fill project in highly calcaric soils in HMU. Native Mediterranean (a) Tamarix parviflora DC. rooted on the almost vertical slope, (b) Nerium oleander L., (c) Cercis siliquastrum L., (d) Viburnum tinus L., and alien e) Elaeagnus pungens C. P. Thunb. Ex A. Murray and (f) Lantana camara L. can be distinguished. Scale on the right is approximate. Photo: I. Daliakopoulos.
Figure 4. Restoration of a cut-and-fill project in highly calcaric soils in HMU. Native Mediterranean (a) Tamarix parviflora DC. rooted on the almost vertical slope, (b) Nerium oleander L., (c) Cercis siliquastrum L., (d) Viburnum tinus L., and alien e) Elaeagnus pungens C. P. Thunb. Ex A. Murray and (f) Lantana camara L. can be distinguished. Scale on the right is approximate. Photo: I. Daliakopoulos.
Land 11 02038 g004
Land 11 02038 g005 550
Figure 5. Examples of Mediterranean plants used in culinary products. (a) Dried Origanum onites L. and Rosmarinus officinalis L. leaves on bread crust, (b) fresh Foeniculum vulgare Hill. leaves on sardines, (c) Crataegus monogyna on cheese spread, (d) Salvia fruticosa Mill. on stew, (e) Borago officinalis L. in omelet. Photos: I. Christoforidi.
Figure 5. Examples of Mediterranean plants used in culinary products. (a) Dried Origanum onites L. and Rosmarinus officinalis L. leaves on bread crust, (b) fresh Foeniculum vulgare Hill. leaves on sardines, (c) Crataegus monogyna on cheese spread, (d) Salvia fruticosa Mill. on stew, (e) Borago officinalis L. in omelet. Photos: I. Christoforidi.
Land 11 02038 g005
Table
Table 1. Suggested use and function of native Mediterranean plants in landscape architecture. IP: individual planting; CL: group or cluster planting; PP: pot plant; LH: low hedge; HG: hedge; TL: tree line; FB: flower bed; RG: rock garden; TS: tree for shade; GC: ground cover or slope cover.
Table 1. Suggested use and function of native Mediterranean plants in landscape architecture. IP: individual planting; CL: group or cluster planting; PP: pot plant; LH: low hedge; HG: hedge; TL: tree line; FB: flower bed; RG: rock garden; TS: tree for shade; GC: ground cover or slope cover.
PlantIPCLPPLHHGTLFBRGTDGC
Acer sempervirens L.ΧΧΧ Χ Χ
Arbutus unedo L.ΧΧΧ Χ
Borago officinalis L. ΧΧ ΧΧ
Calicotome villosa (Poir.) LinkΧΧ Χ ΧΧ Χ
Campanula cretica (A.DC.) D. Dietr. ΧΧ ΧΧ
Capparis spinosa L. Χ Χ ΧΧ Χ
Ceratonia siliqua L.ΧΧΧ Χ Χ
Cercis siliquastrum L.XXX X X
Cichorium spinosum L. ΧΧ ΧΧ
Cistus creticus ssp. Creticus L. 1762 ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Crithmum maritimum L.ΧΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Cupressus sempervirens L.XXX XX
Daucus carota ssp maximus (Desf.) Ball Χ ΧΧ Χ
Ebenus cretica L.ΧΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Foeniculum vulgare Hill. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Helichrysum orientale (L.) Gaertn ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Hypericum perforatum L. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Juniperus oxycedrus L.ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Laurus nobilis L.ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Lavandula stoechas L. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss.ΧΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Lupinus angustifolius L. ΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Medicago arborea L. ΧΧΧ Χ Χ
Melissa officinalis L. ΧΧΧ Χ
Muscari comosum (L.) Parl. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ
Myrtus communis L.ΧΧΧΧΧ
Narcissus tazetta L. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ
Nerium oleander L.ΧΧΧ ΧΧΧ Χ
Origanum dictamnus L. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Origanum onites L. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Pancratium maritimum L. ΧΧ ΧΧ
Petromarula pinnata (L.) A.DC. X XX
Phagnalon rupestre ssp. graecum Batt. XXX XX X
Phillyrea latifolia L.ΧΧΧ ΧX
Phoenix theophrastii GreuterΧΧΧ Χ
Pinus pinea L.ΧΧ Χ Χ
Pistacia lentiscus L.ΧΧΧΧΧ Χ Χ
Pistacia terebinthus L.ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Quercus coccifera L.ΧΧΧ ΧΧ ΧΧ
Quercus ilex L.ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Rhamnus alaternus L. ΧΧ Χ
Rosmarinus officinalis L.ΧΧΧΧΧ Χ Χ
Salvia fruticosa Mill. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Sambucus nigra L.ΧΧΧ Χ Χ
Satureja thymbra L. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Sideritis syriaca subsp. syriaca L. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Spartium junceum L.ΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Styrax officinalis L.ΧΧΧ Χ ΧΧ
Tamarix parviflora DC.ΧΧΧ ΧΧ ΧΧΧ
Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ Χ
Vitex agnus-castus L.ΧΧΧ ΧΧ
Zelkova abelicea (Lam.) Boiss.ΧΧ Χ Χ
Table
Table 2. Tolerance of native plants of Crete to abiotic stress drivers. PR: number of samples assessed in the present research, ΝT: black dots indicate that plant has not tested in the literature or the present study. The number of plants varies in some species according to the needs of the green space.
Table 2. Tolerance of native plants of Crete to abiotic stress drivers. PR: number of samples assessed in the present research, ΝT: black dots indicate that plant has not tested in the literature or the present study. The number of plants varies in some species according to the needs of the green space.
PlantSalinityDroughtNutrient DeficiencyFrugal
PRNTReferencesPRNTReferencesPRNTReferencesPRNTReferences
Borago officinalis L. ● 18 [49]15 [49,50]18 [51]
Calicotome villosa80 [52]85 [53,54]85 85
Capparis spinosa L.45 [55,56]50 [55,56]55 55
Ceratonia siliqua L.180 [57]250 [58,59]358 358 [60]
Cercis siliquastrum L.40 [61]50 50 [62]50
Cichorium spinosum L.25 [63] ● 34 [64]40 [64]
Crithmum maritimum L.42 [65,66]42 42 42
Cupressus sempervirens L.90 [67,68]240 [67,68]120 240
Daucus carota ssp. Maximus (Desf.) Ball 1878 ● 27 [69] ● 27 [69]
Helichrysum orientale (L.) Gaertn18 25 25 [70]25
Hypericum perforatum L. ● 25 [71,72] ● 25 [71,72]
Juniperus oxycedrus L.22 22 [73,74]22 [74]22
Laurus nobilis L. ● 18 [67]24 [67]32
Lavandula stoechas L. ● 12 [49,67] ● 30
Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss.130 [75,76]121 [75,76]121 164
Lupinus angustifolius L.25 [77] ● ● 25
Muscari comosum (L.) Parl.22 [78]22 [79] ● 48
Nerium oleander L.980 [67,80]720 [67]1150 1150 [81]
Origanum dictamnus L. ● 70 70 [30]70
Origanum onites L.85 244 135 [82]244
Phagnalon rupestre ssp. graecum Batt.24 24 [83]24 24 [83]
Phillyrea latifolia L.12 [84]12 [67]20 [67]20 [84]
Pinus pinea L.55 85 [67]85 [67]85
Pistacia lentiscus L.320 350 350 [85]350
Rhamnus alaternus L.650 [86]500 [87]970 [49]970
Rosmarinus officinalis L.350 [67,86]170 [67,86]450 [88]450
Satureja thymbra L.120 [89]200 [89]182 220
Spartium junceum L.62 [86,90]150 [86,90,91,92]200 [86,90]200 [92]
Tamarix parviflora DC.180 [93]180 [93]180 [93]180
Table
Table 6. Proposals for replacement of some invasive plants with native Mediterranean plants with similar functions. Invasive plants listed in [195] and [203] for Crete and Greece, respectively.
Table 6. Proposals for replacement of some invasive plants with native Mediterranean plants with similar functions. Invasive plants listed in [195] and [203] for Crete and Greece, respectively.
Invasive Species Native SpeciesCupressus sempervirens L.Sambucus nigra L.Quercus ilexTamarix parviflora DC.Cercis siliquastrum L.Pistacia terebinthus L.Styrax officinalis L.Pinus pinea L.Acer sempervirens L.Laurus nobilis L.Ceratonia silique L.Nerium oleander L.Medicago arborea L.Vitex agnus-castus L.
Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. ΧΧΧ ΧΧ
Acacia saligna (Labill.) H. Wendl ΧΧΧ ΧΧ
Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle Χ Χ ΧΧ
Eucalyptus sp.ΧΧΧΧ
Lantana camara L. ΧΧΧ
Robinia pseudoacacia L. ΧΧΧ
Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. ΧΧΧ
Tamarix arborea (Ehrenb.) Bunge Χ
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Christoforidi, I.; Kollaros, D.; Manios, T.; Daliakopoulos, I.N. Drought- and Salt-Tolerant Plants of the Mediterranean and Their Diverse Applications: The Case of Crete. Land 2022, 11, 2038. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/land11112038

AMA Style

Christoforidi I, Kollaros D, Manios T, Daliakopoulos IN. Drought- and Salt-Tolerant Plants of the Mediterranean and Their Diverse Applications: The Case of Crete. Land. 2022; 11(11):2038. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/land11112038

Chicago/Turabian Style

Christoforidi, Irene, Dimitrios Kollaros, Thrassyvoulos Manios, and Ioannis N. Daliakopoulos. 2022. "Drought- and Salt-Tolerant Plants of the Mediterranean and Their Diverse Applications: The Case of Crete" Land 11, no. 11: 2038. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/land11112038

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop