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Article

Examining the Influence of Ultrasounds and the Addition of Arrowroot on the Physicochemical Properties of Ice Cream

by
Katarzyna Kozłowicz
1,*,
Marta Krajewska
1,*,
Sybilla Nazarewicz
2,
Grzegorz Gładyszewski
3,
Dariusz Chocyk
3,
Michał Świeca
4,
Dariusz Dziki
5,
Zbigniew Kobus
6,
Stanisław Parafiniuk
7,
Artur Przywara
7 and
Magdalena Kachel
7
1
Department of Biological Bases of Food and Feed Technology, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 28 Głęboka Street, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
2
Department of Agricultural, Forestry and Transport Machines, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 28 Głęboka Street, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
3
Department of Applied Physics, Lublin University of Technology, 36 Nadbystrzycka Street, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
4
Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 8 Skromna Street, 20-704 Lublin, Poland
5
Department of Thermal Technology and Food Process Engineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 31 Głęboka Street, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
6
Department of Technology Fundamentals, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 28 Głęboka Street, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
7
Department of Machine Operation and Production Process Management, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 28 Głęboka Street, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(17), 9816; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13179816
Submission received: 3 July 2023 / Revised: 20 August 2023 / Accepted: 28 August 2023 / Published: 30 August 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontier Research in Food Processing Technologies)
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Abstract

:

Featured Application

The evaluation of the potential use of arrowroot as a substitute for standard stabilizer in the development of novel ice cream, which may have industrial applications.

Abstract

The aim of the study was to evaluate the possibility of utilizing ultrasonic pasteurization as an alternative method to the standard pasteurization technique used for ice cream mixes. In addition, the possibility of replacing commercial stabilizers (guar gum (GG) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)) with arrowroot was assessed. The evaluation of the ice cream involved an analysis of its chemical composition and physical properties, including X-ray diffraction and microstructure analysis. The ice cream containing arrowroot and undergoing ultrasonic pasteurization exhibited significantly higher content of total solids (47.17%), protein (16.26 [g·(100 g)−1]), and free reducing sugars while displaying a notably lower fat content (6.60 [g·(100·g)−1]). The combination of arrowroot and ultrasonic pasteurization exerted a positive effect on reducing the apparent viscosity of the ice cream mixture (166.10 mPa·s). Consequently, it led to decreased hardness (19.97 N), increased overrun (87.02%), and extended melting time (37.48 min) in comparison to ice creams incorporating GG and CMC with traditional pasteurization. The study showed that arrowroot is a promising alternative to standard commercial stabilizers (CMC and GG) in ice cream production, while ultrasound pasteurization has the potential to replace traditional pasteurization methods.

1. Introduction

Ice cream is a product obtained by freezing a pasteurized and chilled liquid mixture made on the basis of milk or cream with the addition of sugars, emulsifiers, or stabilizers intended for direct consumption. Ongoing research in ice cream production focuses not only on developing new recipes but also on enhancing processes to promote sustainable management and introducing innovative flavors or technological solutions to the market [1,2].
Having a thorough understanding of individual processes, such as pasteurization and homogenization, is crucial for optimizing ice cream production. By carefully selecting the appropriate conditions, one can ensure the production of high-quality ice cream. The pasteurization process plays a particularly important role as it effectively eliminates any pathogenic bacteria present in the raw materials and facilitates the transformation of the raw mixture into a product ready for freezing in the freezers [2]. Two types of pasteurization are used in industrial practice: in high pasteurization, the ice cream mixture is quickly heated up to 85 °C and stabilizes for about 5 s; in low pasteurization, the temperature of the ice cream mixture climbs up to 65 °C in 30 min. [3].
The process of pasteurization is closely linked to homogenization, which aims to break down fat particles and create stable, uniform emulsions of the liquid components, preventing them from separating. The fat particles in the ice cream mix have a size of approximately 1 μm, which improves the consistency of the ice cream, reduces the time needed for aeration, and extends its melting time [2].
In response to the increasing consumer demand for high-quality food, there is a search for alternative technologies that are cost-effective, simple, fast, environmentally friendly, and energy-saving. Ultrasound has emerged as a promising method with broad applications [4,5,6]. Its unique characteristics allow for the modification of physical and biochemical properties, leading to improved quality of food products during processing. Ultrasound can be employed in various operations, such as emulsification, modification of textural properties in fat products, enhancement of functional properties in food proteins, as well as freezing, drying, osmotic dehydration, tenderization, concentration, extraction, and thawing processes [7,8,9,10].
Studies have demonstrated the benefits of ultrasound in the freezing process of ice cream, including a reduction in freezing time [11,12]. Furthermore, sonication has shown positive effects on yogurt properties, such as viscosity, firmness, cohesiveness, and consistency [13,14]. The simultaneous use of ultrasound in the processes of pasteurization and homogenization has garnered attention [15,16,17]. Specifically, ultrasound proves to be an effective method for enhancing the textural properties of mixtures containing milk proteins and polysaccharides. It promotes protein gelation, reduces syneresis, and improves water-holding capacity [18].
Moreover, ultrasound is more efficient in homogenization compared to traditional methods. Current research [19] indicates that ultrasonic homogenization enhances emulsion stability by reducing the size of milk fat droplets. This creates favorable conditions for the formation of a finely crystalline structure of ice crystals during ice cream freezing, surpassing the results achieved by traditional homogenization methods. Additionally, studies by Aslan and Dodan [20] and Kot et al. [17] highlight that ultrasonic treatment can eliminate the need for emulsifiers as additives in emulsion preparation, which is advantageous for ice cream production. Thus, ultrasound exhibits significant potential in the production of dairy products, including ice cream.
In addition to the influence of process parameters, the quality of ice cream is significantly influenced by the ingredients utilized during production. Opting for raw materials with a properly selected composition allows for the creation of final products with desired characteristics. Stabilizers play a crucial role despite being used in small quantities in ice cream mixes. They contribute to increased viscosity, aid in aeration, prevent the formation of large ice crystals, and ensure a smooth texture during consumption, such as in a smoothie [21,22,23]. The amount and type of stabilizer required depend on their specific properties [24,25]. As consumer demands, particularly those related to healthy food, continue to rise, there is a constant search for new sources of natural stabilizers and novel combinations to replace commercial stabilizers [26].
Numerous valuable studies have explored natural stabilizers as alternatives to commercial stabilizers, such as guar gum and carrageenan. Feizi et al. [27] utilized extracted chia seed gum (mucilage), Ṻrker [28] evaluated the effects of salep and chia seed powder, El-Aziz et al. [29] employed cress seed and flaxseed mucilages, and Çakmakçı et al. [30] investigated the potential of Gundelia tournefortii L. as a substitute for commercial stabilizers. Huang et al. [31] investigated the effect of natto mucus extract, while Bahramparvar et al. [32] focused on optimizing ice cream formulation using basil seed gum (BSG) from Ocimum basilicum L. In the pursuit of new natural stabilizers, arrowroot has been considered due to its favorable functional properties comparable to certain commercial stabilizers. This nutrient-rich starch, containing carbohydrates, protein, folate, iron, phosphorus, and potassium, serves as a healthier alternative in the preparation of various food products [33,34].
The inclusion of hemp seed oil in the study was motivated by its potential health benefits. Numerous studies have shown that hemp seed oil is exceptionally rich in essential fatty acids (such as linoleic acid, α-linolenic acid, γ-linolenic acid, and stearidonic acid), bioactive components (including tocopherols, tocotrienols, phytosterols, phospholipids, and carotenes), and minerals. The natural dark green color of the cold-pressed hemp seed oil is attributed to its high chlorophyll content (9 mg·(100 g)−1). Due to its favorable properties and wide range of applications, it was incorporated into the developed ice cream as well [35,36,37,38,39].
However, there are some limitations to using hemp seed oil in ice cream. It has a slightly bitter and spicy-nutty taste and contains other bioactive compounds such as cannabinoids, dihydrostilbenes, and spiroindanes. The use and marketing of products containing hemp seed oil are subject to legal requirements and restrictions. In Poland, for example, foods based on hemp and its oils may be sold as long as they do not exceed 0.2% natural phytocannabinoid content during production and are not considered “new products” [40]. Polish regulations on hemp products appear to be less restrictive compared to other European countries. Although the Polish legal system allows for the introduction and sale of such products on the market, it is still strictly regulated and governed by clear rules defining the permissible concentrations of phytocannabinoids in manufactured products.
Considering the information presented, the study had two primary objectives. The first goal aimed to explore the possibility of using ultrasonic pasteurization as an alternative to traditional pasteurization methods in ice cream production. The second goal focused on investigating the potential of arrowroot as a substitute for standard stabilizers like carboxymethylcellulose and guar gum. To achieve these objectives, ice cream mixes containing both arrowroot and stabilizers were subjected to two pasteurization methods: traditional combined with homogenization and ultrasonic pasteurization. Additionally, cold-pressed hemp seed oil was incorporated into the ice cream recipe. The evaluation of the developed ice cream included analyzing its chemical composition, including total polyphenol content and antioxidant potential, as well as examining its physical properties through X-ray diffraction and microstructure analysis.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Preparation of Ice Cream

The hemp seed oil used in the study was obtained from the Futura 75 variety, cultivated on a farm in Czeslawice, with the seed harvest taking place in 2021. The oil extraction was performed using a cold-pressing process with a screw press, following the method [41]. Three types of ice cream samples were prepared, and the formulation for each sample is presented in Table 1. The choice of hemp seed oil was based on its properties presented in many scientific papers [36,37,38]. The optimal proportion of hemp seed oil in the ice cream was determined through a preliminary study, considering both the percentage and taste. One ice cream mixture was prepared with carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and guar gum (GG) along with 5% hemp seed oil, while two ice cream mixtures were prepared with arrowroot and 5% and 6% hemp seed oil, respectively.
The prepared ice cream mixes were subjected to two thermal treatments: (1) traditional pasteurization, carried out in a water bath at 65.0 °C for 20 min (sample 5SP), and (2) ultrasonic pasteurization, where the ice cream mixtures (250 mL) were treated with ultrasound at a temperature of 65.0 °C, using a frequency of 20 kHz, ultrasound intensity of 47.3 W·cm−3, and an exposure time of 15 min (samples 5SU, 5MU, 6MU). For the ice cream mixes containing arrowroot, traditional pasteurization was conducted at 95.0 °C for 5 min (samples 5 MP, 6 MP). After traditional pasteurization, homogenization was applied at a probe speed of 12,000 rpm for 5 min. The ice cream mixes were then cooled and aged overnight at 6 °C. Subsequently, the mixes were aerated for 5 min and frozen in an ice cream maker (Ariete Galatiera Compact with 280 W power) until a temperature of −11.0 °C was reached. Temperature changes during the freezing process were recorded using LB-515 temperature loggers (mini temperature loggers) placed in the ice cream mixture. Duplicate measurements were carried out, and the recorded temperature waveforms were converted to Excel 2000 for the generation of freezing curves, from which the freezing point of the ice cream was determined [42]. The resulting ice cream mixtures were then tempered for 24 h. The following designations were assigned to the ice cream mixtures: 5SP (5% hemp seed oil, CMC + GG, traditional pasteurization), 5SU (5% hemp seed oil, CMC + GG, ultrasonic pasteurization), 5MP (5% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, traditional pasteurization), 6MP (6% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, traditional pasteurization), 5MU (5% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, ultrasonic pasteurization), and 6MU (6% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, ultrasonic pasteurization). The samples were freeze-dried for physicochemical analyses.

2.2. Analysis of Chemical Composition

The solid content of the ice cream samples was determined by employing the dryer method [41]. To determine the fat content, the ice cream samples were subjected to the Soxhlet extraction method, following the AOAC [43] standards. The Kjeldahl method was employed to determine the protein content. The DNSA method was used to determine the levels of free-reducing sugars and sugars released after in vitro digestion [44]. The in vitro digestion of bread was carried out according to the normalized protocol of INFOGEST (www.cost-infogest.eu, accessed on 17 August 2023) as previously described by Brodkorb et al. [45]. For simulated mastication and gastrointestinal digestion, 2 g of powdered ice creams was mixed with 2 mL of simulated salivary fluid containing 15.1 mmol/L KCl, 3.7 mmol/L KH2PO4, 13.6 mmol/L NaHCO3, 0.15 mmol/L MgCl2 (H2O)6, 0.06 mmol/L (NH4)2CO3, 1.5 mmol/L CaCl2, and α-amylase (75 U/mL). The mixture was shaken at 37 °C for 10 min. The samples were then adjusted to pH 3 with 6 M HCl and suspended in 4 mL of simulated gastric fluid containing 6.9 mmol/L KCl, 0.9 mmol/L KH2PO4, 25 mmol/L NaHCO3, 47.2 mmol/L NaCl, 0.1 mmol/L MgCl2 (H2O)6, 0.5 mol/L (NH4)2CO3, 0.15 mmol/L CaCl2, and pepsin (2.000 U/mL), followed by shaking at 37 °C for 120 min. After simulated gastric digestion, the samples were adjusted to pH 7 with 1 M NaOH and suspended in 8 mL of simulated intestinal fluid containing 6.8 mmol/L KCl, 0.8 mmol/L KH2PO4, 85 mmol/L NaHCO3, 38.4 mmol/L NaCl, 0.33 mmol/L MgCl2 (H2O)6, 0.15 mmol/L CaCl2, 10 mmol/L bile extract, and pancreatin (2.000 U/mL). The prepared samples underwent in vitro intestinal digestion for 120 min. After digestion, the samples were centrifuged for 15 min at 6900× g, and the supernatants were mixed with an equal volume of methanol.

2.3. Analysis of Total Phenolics Content and Antioxidant Potential

The extraction process was conducted following the previously described method [46]. The potentially bioaccessible fractions obtained after in vitro digestion were utilized for assessing the phenolic content and antioxidant activities [45]. The total phenolic content was determined by employing the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent [47] and expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dried solid. The reducing power (RP) was determined using the method described by Pulido, Bravo, and Saura-Calixto [48] and expressed as milligrams of Trolox equivalents per gram of dried solid. Antiradical properties were carried out using the ABTS decolorization assay [49] and expressed as milligrams of Trolox equivalents per gram of dried solid. The relative bioaccessibility index (REF) [50] was calculated as follows:
REF = PBF/CHE, where PBF represents the phenolic content or selected antioxidant activity (RP, ABTS) in the digest, and CHE refers to the phenolic content or antioxidant activity (RP, ABTS) in the chemical extracts.

2.4. Physical Analyses of Ice Cream

The percentage overrun of each sample was evaluated by comparing the weight of a fixed volume of ice cream mix and the resulting ice cream [51].
To evaluate the melting time and melting resistance of the ice cream, cylindrical frozen samples weighing 30 g, with a height of 35 mm and a diameter of 25 mm, were placed on a grid-funnel setup along with a beaker at room temperature (21 °C) until they completely melted. These tests were carried out in triplicate [41,52].
The hardness and adhesiveness of the samples were measured using an LFRA texture analyzer (Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, Inc., Middleboro, MA, USA). Samples with a height of 25 mm and a diameter of 30 mm at −6.0 °C were subjected to a penetration test using a reverse extrusion chamber. The hardness was determined as the maximum force [N] required to compress 90% of the sample height, while the adhesiveness was based on the negative force recorded during probe withdrawal. The test parameters used were as follows: probe diameter 5 cm, probe velocity during penetration 2 mm·s−1, and pressing force 0.2 N [41,53].
The apparent viscosity of the ice cream samples was determined using a viscometer from IKA (ROTAVISC lo-vi Complete) following the methods described in previous studies [40]. The measurements were conducted on melted samples at 20 °C using the SP-4 spindle at a shear rate of 200 rpm. The viscosity value was recorded after 2 min.
The pH values of the ice cream samples were measured at 20 °C using a pH meter (ELMETRON CP-401) connected to a glass electrode.

2.5. Microstructure

The structure of freeze-dried ice cream was analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Ultra Plus, Carl Zeiss, Germany). Before the analysis, the samples were sputter-coated with a 20 nm layer of gold using a Sputter Coater (Emitech SC7620). Subsequently, the samples were analyzed using a secondary electron detector at 20 kV [54].

2.6. X-ray Diffraction Analysis

Lyophilized and milled ice cream were subjected to X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The powder X-ray diffraction patterns of all samples were recorded using a high-resolution X-ray diffractometer (Empyrean Panalytical BV, Almelo, The Netherlands) in Bragg-Brentano geometry. The instrument employed CuKα radiation (λ = 1.5418 Å) generated at a voltage of 40 kV and a current of 30 mA. The patterns were recorded in the 2θ range of 10–70° with a step size of 0.01° and a count time of 6 s per data point. A proportional detector was used to detect the X-ray radiation. To minimize source divergence and improve the measurements, ½ and Soller’s slits were used for the source and detector, respectively. Additionally, the sample was rotated at a speed of 8 rpm during the measurement.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

All measurements were conducted in triplicate and analyzed using the StatSoft STATISTICA 13.1 software program. To determine significant differences between means, Tukey’s post hoc analysis was employed. Calculations were carried out at a significance level of p < 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Chemical Properties of Ice Cream

The results for the physical and chemical properties of ice cream with hemp oil are summarized in Table 2.
The ice cream samples exhibited high levels of total solids, proteins, and fats. Specifically, the total solid, protein, and fat contents ranged from 45.75 to 48.91%, 15.92 to 17.59 [g·(100 g)−1], and 6.60 to 18.73 [g·(100 g)−1], respectively. Ice cream formulations that used arrowroot as a substitute for standard stabilizers displayed a significantly higher total solid content compared to those with stabilizers. The total solid content and fat content play a role in the aeration of ice cream. Premium and superpremium ice creams are typically characterized by high total solid content (>40%) and fat content (12–18%), according to Goff and Hartel [2]. Similarly, studies on ice cream with probiotic bacteria [55] and ice cream with different sweetener blends and fat types [56] reported comparable high total solid (42.60–46.89%) and fat content (19.44–21.93%), where the total solid and fat contents ranged from 43.20 to 44.96 [g·(100 g)−1] and 12.32 to 12.47 [g·(100 g)−1], respectively. The ice cream samples subjected to ultrasonic pasteurization demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in fat content (6.60–9.43 [g·(100 g)−1]) compared to those subjected to traditional pasteurization (15.84–18.73 [g·(100 g)−1]). Additionally, there was a slight but statistically significant increase in the content of free reducing sugars observed in the ice cream samples with arrowroot subjected to ultrasonic pasteurization (5MU and 6MU). These findings support the correlations reported in previous studies that employed ultrasonic pasteurization [57]. Fundamental changes in the components of milk (fat, protein) may be attributable to changes in the size of fat globules, which increases the surface membrane area of the fat globules, the formation of bonds between casein and fat globules present in the gel network, denaturation of casein micelles, and the formation of aggregates between k-casein and whey proteins (β-lactoglobulin). Structural changes in the fat globules of milk by ultrasound effect modify their integrity, reducing their size and diameter to submicron levels compared with shear homogenization. Abesinghe et al. [58] reported that the ultrasonication of buffalo’s milk for 15 min significantly reduces the size of the fat globules compared with traditional homogenization. This led to better gelling properties for yogurt production while avoiding syneresis. Shanmugam and Ashokkumar [59] reported that whey proteins stabilize sonoemulsified oil globules, which contributes to the production of gels with better textural attributes compared with those produced using non-ultrasound-treated pasteurized skim milk [60]. Also, as a result of ultrasonic treatment, goat’s milk protein, especially caseins, adsorb to the membrane surface of fat globules, functioning as a natural emulsifier [7,61].

3.2. Total Phenolics Content and Antioxidant Potential of Ice Cream

The content of total phenols in the chemically extractable fraction of the ice cream samples varied between 9.73 [mg·g−1] and 10.40 [mg·g−1]. The presence of arrowroot in the ice cream and the type of pasteurization employed did not have a significant impact on the total phenol content (Figure 1).
The total polyphenol content in ice cream is directly associated with its antioxidant properties. The antioxidant properties of the chemically extractable fractions showed only slight variations among ice cream samples with arrowroot, GG, and CMC stabilizers, as well as different types of pasteurization. Surprisingly, the addition of hemp seed oil to the ice cream samples enriched with arrowroot resulted in a decrease in both the reducing properties (by 13 and 7% in traditionally pasteurized and ultrasound pasteurized samples, respectively) and antiradical properties (by 17% in ultrasound pasteurized samples). As expected, in vitro digestion released the phenolics from the matrix, especially from the samples containing 5% hemp seed oil subjected to traditional pasteurization. Such behavior was previously observed after the digestion of hemp-based products [62]. The increase in total phenolics content corresponded to enhanced antioxidant properties in the potentially bioaccessible fractions, particularly noticeable in terms of antiradical properties. However, it is worth noting that, except for the pasteurization method, the control samples containing conventional stabilizers (CMC and GG) exhibited the highest antiradical properties. Compared to the arrowroot-based samples, the antiradical activity was lower by 7 and 15% in traditionally pasteurized and ultrasound-pasteurized samples, respectively. The increase in antiradical properties of the potentially bioaccessible fractions was not directly proportional to the amounts of released phenolics. This suggests that other components, such as peptides released from the protein-rich matrix, may contribute to this activity. Similar findings have been reported in studies on casein hydrolysates [63] and hemp protein hydrolysates [64]. Conversely, the changes in reducing properties of the potentially bioaccessible fraction align with the release behavior observed for phenolics. A similar relationship between phenolic content and reducing potential has been observed in studies on digested berries [65], hemp hydrolysates [62], and light ice cream incorporating purple rice bran [66].

3.3. Physical Properties of Ice Cream

The ice cream sample with 5% hemp oil and arrowroot, subjected to conventional pasteurization, achieved the lowest freezing point temperature (−9.8 °C) among the tested samples (Table 3). The use of arrowroot as a stabilizer and ultrasonic pasteurization did not significantly affect the freezing point temperature of the ice cream. Freezing point temperature is an important factor in ice cream preparation as it impacts melting and recrystallization processes and is influenced by the molecular weights and concentrations of solutes in the serum phase [42]. In this case, the presence of erythritol led to extremely low freezing point values. Erythritol, a natural polyalcohol, is a sugar substitute with approximately 0.7 times the sweetness of sucrose. Its use is motivated by its 0-calorie value, GI, and noncariogenic properties [67].
Overrun refers to the volume of air incorporated during the freezing process, and it plays a significant role in ice cream production in terms of meeting legal standards and overall profitability. Maintaining consistent overruns is essential for controlling both the quality and quantity of ice cream. Significant differences in overrun were observed between the samples prepared using traditional stabilizers and those using arrowroot as a substitute (Table 3). Ice cream samples prepared with GG and CMC exhibited lower overrun (28.11 and 37.95%, respectively) compared to samples with arrowroot (63.80 and 72.45%, respectively). Ultrasonic pasteurization of ice cream with arrowroot resulted in the highest degree of aeration, with 80.54% for 5MU and 87.02% for 6MU.
The meltability of ice cream is influenced by the type and amount of fats used, as well as the fat content incorporated into the formulation. Ice cream samples with CMC and GG stabilizers, subjected to ultrasonic pasteurization, exhibited the highest melting resistance, with a total melting time of 37.48 min for 5SU. The use of arrowroot in combination with ultrasonic pasteurization had a positive effect on reducing the apparent viscosity of the ice cream mixture, resulting in decreased hardness and increased complete melting time compared to ice creams with GG and CMC prepared using traditional pasteurization. Additionally, ice cream with arrowroot showed a higher degree of aeration. Ultrasound facilitates the even distribution of all components in the ice cream mixture, including fat globules, while also providing the pasteurization effect. Previous studies have also shown that mucilage, such as chia seed mucilage [27,68], yam mucilage [69], and BSG [70], can be used as stabilizers in ice cream, resulting in similar characteristics to those obtained with commercial stabilizers (GG). Ice cream samples with mucilage exhibited higher degrees of aeration, longer melting times, and freezing point temperatures ranging from −6.1 to −2.8 °C.
The texture is an important factor that influences consumer perception of ice cream, and it is determined by factors such as overrun and viscosity. Higher overrun leads to decreased hardness in ice cream, while viscosity and hardness have an inverse relationship. In the tested ice cream samples, the hardness ranged from 19.97 to 45.56 N. Ultrasound treatment of ice cream mixtures with GG and CMC stabilizers resulted in increased hardness compared to traditional pasteurization (from 38.37 N for 5SP to 45.56 N for 5SU). An inverse relationship was observed for ice cream involving arrowroot. The ice cream was characterized by a significantly lower hardness, with increasing hemp seed oil participation causing a decrease in hardness (from 29.15 N for 5MU to 19.97 N for 6MU).
Viscosity is another important indicator of ice cream texture. Ice cream samples using standard stabilizers (CMC + GG) exhibited the highest apparent viscosity (e.g., 544.4 mPa·s for 5SP). The use of arrowroot significantly decreased the apparent viscosity of ice cream (e.g., 313.6 mPa·s for 5MP and 203.6 mPa·s for 6MP). Additionally, the application of ultrasonic pasteurization in these ice cream mixtures further reduced the apparent viscosity (e.g., 166.1 mPa·s for 5MU and 169.1 mPa·s for 6MU). The viscosity of ice cream plays a crucial role in overrun. In a previous study [27], it was observed that increasing ice cream viscosity leads to a decrease in its degree of aeration. The correlations observed in the present study align with the results obtained in a study using ultrasonic pasteurization in ice cream with oleo gels [57]. Some studies have reported that ultrasound treatment decreases the viscosity of samples by increasing solubility and disrupting protein aggregates [71,72]. Furthermore, ultrasonic treatment has been shown to increase the stability and performance of milk-based emulsions without forming peroxides or altering the fatty acid composition. It has also been demonstrated that ultrasound-assisted preparation of such emulsions can eliminate the need for food additives such as emulsifiers, providing economic and commercial benefits [20].
Regarding pH, the use of arrowroot as a stabilizer and ultrasonic pasteurization did not significantly affect pH levels in the ice cream samples.

3.4. X-ray Diffraction

Results of XRD of arrowroot powder (a) and ice cream powders (b) are shown in Figure 2, respectively.
The XRD patterns of ice cream powders exhibited consistent, sharp diffraction peaks and a large diffuse hump around 2θ = 20°. This prominent hump indicates a significant fraction of amorphous structure in the ice cream powder. On the other hand, the presence of sharp peaks suggests the presence of some level of crystallization in the ice cream powders or the inclusion of crystalline materials mixed with the amorphous structure.
It has been reported by Valecia et al. [73] that maranta starch displays a diffraction pattern characteristic of a B-type crystal, which is associated with starches containing an amylose–lipid complex. However, in the analysis conducted, the peak positions in all patterns did not show significant variations, and these sharp peaks were attributed to erythritol. Erythritol is known for its crystalline nature and rigid structure, and the size of the erythritol crystallites appeared to be similar. Detailed data regarding the analysis of the two peaks around 2θ = 19.5 and 20.16° can be found in the provided tables (Figure 2). The XRD patterns of erythritol have been previously documented by Karthik et al. [74]. Additionally, the broad peak observed corresponds to the amorphous structure of other ingredients present in the ice cream powder.

3.5. Microstructural of Ice Cream

Micrographs of the ice cream were taken to support the results of the analyses (Figure 3).
While analyzing the SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) images, notable distinctions were observed in the structure of ice cream prepared using different pasteurization methods in combination with arrowroot. In the case of ice cream with arrowroot that underwent traditional pasteurization, a compact and dense structure was noted, with the limited presence of air bubbles and voids left by ice crystals. This is linked to a lower degree of aeration and higher viscosity of the ice cream samples. Conversely, the microstructure of ice cream subjected to ultrasonic pasteurization exhibited a finer structure and larger air spaces, which is associated with lower viscosity and a higher degree of aeration.
The differences in ice cream structure can be attributed to the monomodal particle size distribution and the circular, ellipsoid, and oval granules of arrowroot starch. Previous research by Kamińska-Dwórznicka et al. [21] has indicated that the shape of ice crystals is influenced by the type of stabilizer used, and the diameter of ice crystals is affected by the composition of the ice cream.
The differences in ice cream structure can also be attributed to the impact of ultrasonication, which enhances the heat stability of whey proteins and reduces the size of milk fat globules to < 1 µm [75]. Reiner et al. [76] demonstrated that the use of ultrasound improves the gel matrix structure of proteins, especially in the presence of polysaccharides. In the scanning electron microscopic images of ultrasound-treated yogurt samples, a honeycomb-like structure and increased spore presence were observed compared to nonsonicated samples.

4. Conclusions

Research has shown that ultrasonic pasteurization of ice cream mix can serve as an alternative method to standard pasteurization and homogenization in ice cream production. When combined with cane arrowroot as a substitute for commercial stabilizers like CMC and GG, ultrasonic treatment yielded better results compared to traditional pasteurization.
Ice cream with arrowroot and ultrasonic pasteurization exhibited significantly higher total solids, protein, and free-reducing sugar content while having a significantly lower fat content. Ice cream samples containing 6% hemp oil showed the highest phenolics content in the chemically extractable fraction, indicating that hemp oil could be a favorable alternative for enhancing the nutritional profile of ice cream.
The combination of arrowroot as a stabilizer and ultrasonic pasteurization did not cause significant changes in the freezing point temperature of the ice cream. The presence of erythritol contributed to extremely low freezing point values. Moreover, the use of arrowroot with ultrasonic pasteurization decreased the apparent viscosity of the ice cream mixture, resulting in decreased hardness and increased complete melting time compared to ice creams with GG and CMC stabilized with traditional pasteurization. These ice cream samples also exhibited a higher degree of aeration.
XRD analysis revealed that most of the ice cream ingredients had an amorphous structure, but the presence of erythritol contributed to a crystalline form in the ice cream.
Based on the results obtained, it was concluded that ultrasonic pasteurization has significant potential for practical application due to its simplicity, environmental friendliness, and cost-effectiveness compared to traditional pasteurization methods. The optimal proposal for practical use would be ice cream prepared with 4.0% arrowroot and 5.0 or 6.0% hemp seed oil, subjected to ultrasonic pasteurization. However, further research is needed to gain a better understanding of the complex physicochemical mechanisms that influence the technological and functional properties of ice cream.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.K. and D.D.; methodology, S.N., G.G., D.C., M.Ś. and M.K. (Magdalena Kachel); software, M.K. (Marta Krajewska), S.N., G.G., D.C. and M.Ś.; validation, K.K. and A.P.; formal analysis, M.K. (Marta Krajewska), S.N., G.G., D.C. and M.Ś.; investigation, K.K. and M.K. (Magdalena Kachel); resources, Z.K., S.P. and A.P.; data curation, M.K. (Marta Krajewska) and Z.K.; writing—original draft preparation, K.K., S.N., G.G. and D.D.; writing—review and editing, K.K., S.N. and D.D.; visualization, K.K., S.N. and M.K. (Marta Krajewska); supervision, S.P. and A.P.; project administration, K.K., M.K. (Marta Krajewska), and Z.K.; funding acquisition, K.K., S.N., Z.K., D.D. and S.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 13 09816 g001aApplsci 13 09816 g001b
Figure 1. Phenolic content (A), antiradical (B), and reducing (C) properties in the chemically extractable and potentially bioaccessible fractions of the studied ice creams. TE, Trolox equivalents Means indicated by different letters are significantly different (p-value < 0.05) (n = 4).
Figure 1. Phenolic content (A), antiradical (B), and reducing (C) properties in the chemically extractable and potentially bioaccessible fractions of the studied ice creams. TE, Trolox equivalents Means indicated by different letters are significantly different (p-value < 0.05) (n = 4).
Applsci 13 09816 g001aApplsci 13 09816 g001b
Applsci 13 09816 g002
Figure 2. X-ray diffraction profiles for (a) arrowroot powder and (b) ice cream power.
Figure 2. X-ray diffraction profiles for (a) arrowroot powder and (b) ice cream power.
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Figure 3. Structure of ice cream by scanning electron microscopy: 5SP (5% hemp seed oil, carboxymethylcellulose + guar gum (CMC + GG), traditional pasteurization), 5SU (5% hemp seed oil, CMC + GG, ultrasonic pasteurization), 5MP (5% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, traditional pasteurization) 6MP (6% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, traditional pasteurization), 5MU (5% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, ultrasonic pasteurization), 6MU (6% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, ultrasonic pasteurization).
Figure 3. Structure of ice cream by scanning electron microscopy: 5SP (5% hemp seed oil, carboxymethylcellulose + guar gum (CMC + GG), traditional pasteurization), 5SU (5% hemp seed oil, CMC + GG, ultrasonic pasteurization), 5MP (5% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, traditional pasteurization) 6MP (6% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, traditional pasteurization), 5MU (5% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, ultrasonic pasteurization), 6MU (6% hemp seed oil, arrowroot, ultrasonic pasteurization).
Applsci 13 09816 g003
Table 1. The formulation for the ice cream.
Table 1. The formulation for the ice cream.
IngredientsComposition (g⋅(100 g)−1, w/w)
5SP5SU5MP6MP5MU6MU
Whole milk (Lactose-free)
(Mlekovita, Poland)		53.053.051.051.051.051.0
30% cream (Lactose-free)
(Mlekovita, Poland)		11.011.011.011.011.011.0
Skimmed milk powder (Lactose-free) (Mlekovita, Poland)18.018.018.017.018.017.0
Hemp seed oil5.05.05.06.05.06.0
Erythritol (Agnex, China)12.512.510.510.510.510.5
Arrowroot (Market Bio, Awrott, India)−−4.04.04.04.0
Emulsifier E 471 (Fooding, Shanghai, China)0.20.20.50.50.50.5
Stabilizer (CMC + GG)
(Agnex, Bialystok, Poland)		0.30.3−−−−
Table 2. Chemical composition of ice cream.
Table 2. Chemical composition of ice cream.
Properties5SP5MP6MP5SU5MU6MU
Total solid [%]45.75 c ± 0.4248.91 a ± 0.2348.39 a ± 0.2945.75 c ± 0.0946.59 c ± 0.2647.17 b ± 0.36
Protein [g·(100 g)−1]16.99 d ± 0.0617.57 a ± 0.0915.92 f ± 0.0517.39 b ± 0.0617.18 c ± 0.0516.26 e ± 0.03
Fat [g·(100 g)−1]15.84 b ± 1.5217.67 ab ±1.1118.73 a ± 0.446.60 d ± 0.338.26 cd ± 0.449.43 c ± 0.28
Free reducing sugars [%]3.66 d ± 0.104.00 bc ± 0.113.98 c ± 0.003.76 d ± 0.114.37 a ± 0.034.15 b ± 0.06
a–f Means in the same line indicated by different letters were significantly different (p-value < 0.05) (n = 3).
Table 3. Physical properties of ice cream.
Table 3. Physical properties of ice cream.
Properties5SP5MP6MP5SU5MU6MU
Freezing point [°C]−9.0 ab ± 0.50−9.8 c ± 0.29−9.5 bc ± 0.0−8.8 ab ± 0.29−8.5 a ± 0.0−9.0 ab ± 0.0
Overrun [%]37.95 d ± 0.3863.80 c ± 5.3172.45 b ± 2.5428.11 e ± 1.2080.54 a ± 0.9387.02 a ± 0.61
Complete
melting time [min]		20.06 cd ± 0.4618.78 e ± 0.2019.29 de ± 0.5637.48 a ± 0.0120.66 c ± 0.6022.44 b ± 0.01
Hardness [N]38.37 b ± 0.6430.33 c ± 2.4531.29 c ± 2.5445.56 a ± 2.3429.15 c ± 0.7819.97 d ± 1.08
Adhesiveness [N·s]−29.50 a ± 3.88−62.18 c ± 1.59−47.99 b ± 1.68−42.65 b ± 1.16−63.85 c ± 1.41−91.30 d ± 1.51
Apparent viscosity [mPa∙s]544.4 b ± 1.5313.6 c ± 4,8203.6 d ± 4.3692.9 a ± 0.2166.1 e ± 3.1169.1 e ± 6.9
pH6.42 a ± 0.036.18 bc ± 0.066.13 c ± 0.076.30 abc ± 0.026.35 a ± 0.036.32 ab ± 0.12
a–e Means in the same line indicated by different letters are significantly different (p-value < 0.05) (n = 3).
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MDPI and ACS Style

Kozłowicz, K.; Krajewska, M.; Nazarewicz, S.; Gładyszewski, G.; Chocyk, D.; Świeca, M.; Dziki, D.; Kobus, Z.; Parafiniuk, S.; Przywara, A.; et al. Examining the Influence of Ultrasounds and the Addition of Arrowroot on the Physicochemical Properties of Ice Cream. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 9816. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13179816

AMA Style

Kozłowicz K, Krajewska M, Nazarewicz S, Gładyszewski G, Chocyk D, Świeca M, Dziki D, Kobus Z, Parafiniuk S, Przywara A, et al. Examining the Influence of Ultrasounds and the Addition of Arrowroot on the Physicochemical Properties of Ice Cream. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(17):9816. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13179816

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kozłowicz, Katarzyna, Marta Krajewska, Sybilla Nazarewicz, Grzegorz Gładyszewski, Dariusz Chocyk, Michał Świeca, Dariusz Dziki, Zbigniew Kobus, Stanisław Parafiniuk, Artur Przywara, and et al. 2023. "Examining the Influence of Ultrasounds and the Addition of Arrowroot on the Physicochemical Properties of Ice Cream" Applied Sciences 13, no. 17: 9816. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13179816

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