Digital Silk Roads: Leveraging the Metaverse for Cultural Tourism within the Belt and Road Initiative Framework

Abstract

The advent of the Metaverse, a convergence of virtual and physical realities, presents unprecedented opportunities for promoting cultural tourism along the historic Silk Roads within the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) framework. However, this emerging technology’s potential remains largely unexplored in the context of cultural heritage preservation and its promotion. The aim of this study is to address this gap by empirically examining how the Metaverse can be harnessed to improve tourists’ experiences, support sustainable tourism development, and promote cultural exchange along the Silk Roads. In this study, we employed a mixed-methods approach grounded in attribution theory, using both surveys and semi-structured interviews with Silk Road tourists who had been exposed to Metaverse applications. To investigate the relationships between Metaverse features, tourists’ attributions, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions, we used structural equation modeling and thematic analysis. The findings revealed that perceived immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity significantly influenced tourists’ internal, stable, and controllable attributions. Interviews further highlighted the Metaverse’s potential to promote accessibility, interpretation, and engagement with Silk Road heritage, while also raising sociocultural and ethical considerations. This paper also showcases the development of Metaverse digital twin prototypes for several iconic Silk Road cities to demonstrate the potential for participatory virtual environments to promote cultural heritage preservation, accessibility, and sustainable tourism. The study’s findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of Metaverse tourism and the application of attribution theory, offering practical insight for the responsible and effective harnessing of this transformative technology. This research provides actionable recommendations for policymakers, destination managers, and technology providers to optimize the Metaverse’s potential for cultural tourism along the Silk Roads. This has great potential in promoting the BRI’s connectivity and cooperation objectives. This paper lays the foundation for future research and responsible innovation at the intersection of emerging technologies, cultural heritage, and sustainable tourism development.

1. Introduction

The Silk Roads have long been a symbol of cultural exchange, commerce, and shared heritage [1,2,3,4]. In the 21st century, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has emerged as a modern-day revival of this historic concept, with the aim of promoting connectivity, cooperation, and shared prosperity across Eurasia and beyond [5,6,7,8]. As the BRI continues to evolve, the integration of cutting-edge technologies, such as the Metaverse, presents new opportunities for cultural tourism along the Silk Roads.

The Metaverse is enabled by advanced technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and artificial intelligence (AI). It offers the potential to revolutionize the way people experience, interact with, and study cultural heritage [9,10,11,12,13,14]. By creating immersive, personalized, and engaging virtual environments, the Metaverse can boost accessibility, interpretation, and conservation of Silk Road heritage sites, artifacts, and cultural assets [15,16,17]. However, despite the growing recognition of the Metaverse’s transformative potential, empirical research on its application in cultural tourism, particularly within the BRI context, remains limited [18].

This study addresses this research gap by empirically examining how the Metaverse can be harnessed to promote cultural tourism along the Silk Roads within the BRI framework. The research question explored in this study is as follows:

How can the Metaverse be leveraged to promote cultural tourism along the Silk Roads within China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)?

To this end, we have adopted attribution theory [19] as a theoretical lens to investigate the relationships between Metaverse features, tourists’ causal attributions, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions in the context of digital Silk Road cultural tourism [20,21].

Attribution theory posits that individuals make causal inferences about events and experiences based on three key dimensions: locus of causality (internal/external), stability (stable/unstable), and controllability (controllable/uncontrollable) [19]. By applying this framework to the study of Metaverse tourism, we shed light on how tourists’ attributions of their virtual experiences influence their evaluations, satisfaction, and future engagement [22] with Silk Road cultural heritage. This understanding can inform the design, development, and management of Metaverse [23] applications so as to optimize their impact on cultural tourism promotion and sustainable development along the Silk Roads [24,25,26].

This is a mixed-methods study combining surveys and semi-structured interviews with Silk Road tourists who have been exposed to Metaverse applications (see Table S1). This methodology allows for a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of tourists’ perceptions, experiences, and attributions, providing both quantitative and qualitative insight to guide theory development and practical application.

The significance of this research lies in its timely and novel contribution to the emerging field of Metaverse tourism, as well as its practical implications for harnessing this transformative technology to support cultural heritage preservation, promotion, and sustainable development along the Silk Roads within the BRI framework. The results of this study inform policymaking, destination management, and technological innovation by bridging the gap between theory and practice, fostering responsible and impactful use of the Metaverse in cultural tourism contexts.

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows:

• Section 2 presents a comprehensive literature review, synthesizing themes, theories, and frameworks related to the Metaverse, cultural tourism, and attribution theory.
• Section 3 outlines the conceptual framework and propositions guiding the empirical investigation.
• Section 4 describes the mixed-methods methodology, including sampling, data collection, and analysis procedures.
• Section 5 presents the results, integrating both quantitative and qualitative findings.
• Section 6 presents virtual Silk Road, and metaverse digital twins of historical cities.
• Section 7 discusses the study’s theoretical and practical implications, offering recommendations for stakeholders.
• Section 8 concludes, summarizing key contributions, limitations, and recommended future research directions.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Metaverse and Its Applications in Tourism

The Metaverse, a term coined by science fiction author Neal Stephenson in his 1992 novel Snow Crash, refers to a convergence of virtual and physical realities enabled by advanced technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and artificial intelligence (AI) [27,28,29,30,31,32]. In the Metaverse, users can interact with digital objects and other users in immersive, persistent, and shared virtual environments [9]. In this way, the Metaverse has the ability to transform various aspects of human life, including work, education, entertainment, and tourism [33,34].

In the tourism context, the Metaverse offers new opportunities to improve the visitor experience, promote various destinations, and preserve cultural heritage [23,35,36,37]. By creating immersive and interactive virtual environments, the Metaverse can enable tourists to remotely explore destinations, attractions, and events, overcoming the physical, temporal, and financial constraints they may face [15,16]. Moreover, the Metaverse can facilitate personalized and engaging experiences, allowing tourists to interact with virtual guides, avatars, and other users, all the while fostering social connections and cultural exchange [38,39,40].

Recent studies have explored the Metaverse’s potential applications in various tourism contexts [41,42,43], such as virtual museums [44,45,46,47], theme parks [48], and heritage sites [49]. These studies highlight the Metaverse’s capacity to enhance accessibility, interpretation, and conservation of cultural assets, as well as its potential to engender new business models and revenue streams for tourism stakeholders [23,38,50,51,52]. However, empirical research on the Metaverse’s effects on tourists’ experiences, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions remains limited, particularly in the context of cultural tourism along the Silk Roads.

2.2. Cultural Tourism along the Silk Roads and the Belt and Road Initiative

Dating back to its historical origins as an ancient network of sea and land routes linking the East and West, the Silk Road has played an pivotal role in human history [53]. Expanding over 6000 km, the Silk Roads encompass diverse landscapes, civilizations, and cultural assets, from the Chinese city of Xi’an to the Mediterranean ports of Venice and Istanbul, passing Baghdad, Dura-Europos, Palmyra and Aleppo [54,55]. Today, the Silk Roads continue to captivate the imagination of travelers and scholars alike, offering a tapestry of history, art, architecture, and intangible cultural heritage [56,57].

Meanwhile, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has emerged in recent years as a modern-day revival of the Silk Roads, with the aim of promoting connectivity, cooperation, and shared prosperity across Eurasia and beyond [58,59]. Launched in 2013, the BRI encompasses over 70 countries and entails investment in infrastructure, trade, and cultural exchange [60,61]. As part of the BRI, cultural tourism along the Silk Roads has drawn renewed attention, with initiatives to preserve, promote, and develop heritage sites, routes, and experiences [62,63,64,65,66].

However, promoting sustainable and inclusive cultural tourism along the Silk Roads within the BRI framework presents various challenges, such as balancing the interests of conservation and development, engaging local communities [51,52], and acclimating to changing consumer preferences and technologies [67,68,69]. In this context, the Metaverse is a potential tool for improving cultural tourism experience, supporting heritage preservation, and fostering cross-cultural understanding along the Silk Roads (see Table S1).

2.3. Attribution Theory and Its Application in Tourism Research

Attribution theory offers an explanation for how individuals draw causal inferences about events and experiences. It was developed by social psychologist Fritz Heider in the 1950s, and later expanded by other scholars, such as Bernard Weiner [19,70,71,72,73]. The theory posits that individuals attribute the causes of outcomes to either internal (within the person) or external (outside the person) factors, and that these attributions influence their emotions, motivations, and future behavior [19,74].

Weiner identified three key dimensions of causal attributions: the locus of causality (internal/external), stability (stable/unstable), and controllability (controllable/uncontrollable). The locus of causality refers to whether the cause is perceived as originating from within the individual (e.g., ability, effort) or from external factors (e.g., task difficulty, luck). Stability reflects whether the cause is seen as temporary or persistent over time. Controllability indicates the degree to which the cause is perceived as being under an individual’s control or influence [19,75,76].

Attribution theory has been applied in various domains of tourism research to explain tourists’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. For example, Orth et al. [77] used attribution theory to examine how tourists’ attachments to place-based brands are influenced by their attributions of the brand’s authenticity, quality, and prestige. Chen, Petrick and Shahvali [78] applied attribution theory to investigate how tourists’ causal attributions of their travel experiences influence their life satisfaction. Jackson et al. [79] explored self-concept and self-esteem differences in technology use attributions among adolescents.

Studies have revealed that tourists’ attributions of positive and negative experiences influence their overall satisfaction, word-of-mouth recommendations, and intention to revisit a particular destination [77]. For example, Chen et al. [78] found that tourists who attributed their positive experiences to internal and stable factors, for example their own skills and knowledge, reported higher satisfaction and loyalty than those who attributed positive outcomes to external and unstable factors such as luck or chance.

Despite the growing body of research in which attribution theory is being applied to tourism, its potential for understanding tourists’ experiences and evaluations within the context of Metaverse tourism remains unexplored [80,81]. As the Metaverse introduces new forms of interaction, immersion, and co-creation, it is becoming increasingly important to investigate what it is towards which tourists attribute their virtual experiences, and how these attributions, in turn, influence both their satisfaction and their behavioral intentions [23,82,83]. This presents an opportunity to extend the application of attribution theory to better understand the psychological mechanisms underlying tourists’ responses to and evaluations of emerging digital tourism platforms.

2.4. Perception in Cultural Tourism and Virtual Environments

In addition to attribution theory, credibility, and immersion, perception is a key factor in understanding tourists’ reactions to virtual environments and cultural heritage representations. Perception includes elements such as usefulness, credibility, realism, precision, and abstraction, which collectively shape how individuals experience and evaluate virtual spaces [84].

Higuera-Trujillo et al. [84] investigated the effects of different virtual environment displays and formats on users’ perceptions. Their study revealed that factors like realism, comprehension of space, ease of orientation, and usefulness in design decisions were interconnected and influenced by the type of display and format used. This finding indicates that the perceived authenticity and usability of virtual cultural tourism experiences may depend significantly on the specific technologies employed.

Other research has also emphasized the importance of perceptual factors in virtual heritage contexts. Siddiqui et al. and Ahmed et al. [85,86] examined the impact of visual realism on users’ experiences in virtual heritage tourism settings, discovering that higher levels of realism enhanced presence, enjoyment, and knowledge acquisition. Similarly, Besoain, González-Ortega, and Gallardo [87] explored how different degrees of visual abstraction influenced users’ understanding and appreciation of cultural heritage in virtual environments. They noted that while photorealistic representations were preferred for overall comprehension, more abstract visualizations could effectively highlight specific details or features.

The significance of perception in virtual cultural tourism is further highlighted by the need for culturally sensitive and contextually appropriate representations. Debailleux, Hismans, and Duroisin, along with Rather et al. [88,89], emphasized that virtual heritage experiences should be designed with attention to cultural authenticity, ethical representation, and the inclusion of diverse perspectives. This suggests that beyond technical considerations of realism and accuracy, virtual environments must also be perceived as culturally legitimate and respectful by users.

2.5. Research Gaps and the Present Study

This study addresses several research gaps in the literature on the application of metaverse technology for enhancing cultural tourism experiences, particularly within the context of the Belt and Road Initiative and the Silk Roads.

First, while the Metaverse’s potential in tourism has been conceptually discussed [23,33], empirical research on its application in cultural tourism, particularly along the Silk Roads, remains scant.

Second, although attribution theory has been applied to explicating tourists’ experiences and evaluations in traditional tourism contexts [90], its relevance to Metaverse tourism remains unknown.

Finally, integrating the Metaverse and cultural tourism within the BRI framework presents a novel and timely research opportunity with implications for sustainable development and cultural exchange [19].

To address these gaps, we adopt attribution theory as a theoretical lens to investigate how the Metaverse can be harnessed to enhance cultural tourism along the Silk Roads within the context of the BRI. By examining the relationships between Metaverse features, tourists’ attributions, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions, this study contributes to the theoretical understanding of Metaverse tourism and provides practical insight for stakeholders involved in cultural tourism development along the Silk Roads.

3. Conceptual Framework

Drawing upon the literature review and the theoretical foundations of attribution theory, we propose a conceptual framework (Figure 1) to investigate how the Metaverse can be harnessed to enhance cultural tourism along the Silk Roads within the context of the BRI. The framework integrates key Metaverse features, tourists’ causal attributions, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions, providing a holistic understanding of the factors influencing the success of Metaverse tourism within the context of the Silk Road.

3.1. Metaverse Features

The conceptual framework identifies three key Metaverse features that should influence tourists’ experiences and attributions: immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity.

• Immersion refers to the degree to which the Metaverse environment engages users’ senses and creates a sense of presence [23];
• Avatar identification represents how users perceive a connection or similarity with their virtual representations [91];
• Cultural authenticity reflects the perceived authenticity and accuracy of the cultural content, and the experiences provided in the Metaverse [92,93].

3.2. Tourists’ Causal Attributions

Our conceptual framework posits that tourists’ perceptions of Metaverse features influence their causal attributions of their virtual experiences. Following Weiner’s [19] attribution theory, the focus of this study is the three dimensions of causal attributions: locus of causality, stability, and controllability. In the Metaverse tourism context, the following are relevant:

• Locus of causality refers to whether tourists attribute their experiences to internal factors (e.g., their own skills, knowledge, or preferences) or external factors (e.g., the Metaverse environment’s design, content quality);
• Stability reflects whether tourists perceive the causes of their experiences as temporary or enduring;
• Controllability indicates the degree to which tourists believe they have control over their experiences in the Metaverse.

3.3. Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions

The framework further proposes that tourists’ causal attributions influence their satisfaction with their Metaverse tourism experience, as well as their future behavioral intentions:

• Satisfaction is conceptualized as tourists’ overall evaluation of their Metaverse experience, considering the fulfillment of their expectations and needs [78];
• Behavioral intentions encompass tourists’ willingness to recommend their Metaverse experience to others (i.e., word-of-mouth intention), their desire to use Metaverse applications for future cultural tourism experiences (i.e., continuance intention), and their interest in visiting physical Silk Road destinations which are featured in the Metaverse (i.e., visit intention).

3.4. Propositions

Based on our conceptual framework, we derive the following propositions:

Proposition 1.

Higher levels of perceived immersion in the Metaverse will lead to more internal, stable, and controllable attributions of the tourism experience.

Proposition 2.

Stronger avatar identification will be associated with more internal, stable, and controllable attributions of the Metaverse tourism experience.

Proposition 3.

Higher perceived cultural authenticity in the Metaverse will result in more external, stable, and uncontrollable attributions of the tourism experience.

Proposition 4.

Internal, stable, and controllable attributions of the Metaverse tourism experience will lead to higher satisfaction and more positive behavioral intention, including word-of-mouth, continuance, and visit intention.

Proposition 5.

External, unstable, and uncontrollable attributions of Metaverse tourism experiences will lead to lower satisfaction and less positive behavioral intention.

These propositions guide our empirical investigation of the relationships between Metaverse features, tourists’ causal attributions, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions, in the context of cultural tourism along the Silk Roads. With this in mind, this study provides insight into ways the Metaverse can be harnessed to improve cultural tourism experiences, and to support sustainable development within the BRI framework, by testing the aforementioned propositions.

The (Figure 1) below presents the conceptual framework, illustrating the relationships between Metaverse features, tourists’ causal attributions, outcomes, and the propositions linking these components. The framework shows how immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity (Metaverse features) influence tourists’ causal attributions in terms of locus of causality, stability, and controllability (P1–P3). We propose that these causal attributions could influence satisfaction and behavioral intentions, including word-of-mouth, continuance, and visit intention (P4–P5).

3.4.1. Metaverse Features

Immersion: The feeling of being fully engaged and present in a virtual environment;

Avatar: A digital representation of the user in the Metaverse;

Identification: Users’ ability to connect and identify with their avatars;

Cultural Authenticity: The extent to which the Metaverse reflects and respects different cultures.

3.4.2. Tourists’ Causal Attributions

Locus of Causality: Whether tourists attribute the cause of their experiences to internal factors (those that are within themselves), or external factors (those that are outside themselves);

Stability: Whether tourists believe the causes of their experiences are stable (unlikely to change) or unstable (likely to change);

Controllability: Whether tourists believe they have control over the causes of their experiences.

3.4.3. Outcomes

Satisfaction: The overall level of enjoyment and satisfaction with the Metaverse experience;

Behavioral Intentions: The likelihood of tourists engaging in certain behaviors following their experience, for example:

• Word-of-mouth intention: sharing positive experiences with others.
• Continuance intention: returning to the Metaverse in the future.
• Visit intention: visiting other Metaverses or similar attractions.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Research Design

We adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys and qualitative semi-structured interviews to empirically test the proposed conceptual framework, and to investigate the research question. The mixed-methods design facilitates a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of tourists’ experiences, attributions, and evaluations of Metaverse tourism in the context of the Silk Roads and the BRI [94,95]. The quantitative component enables assessment of the relationships between the variables and the generalized findings; the qualitative component provides deeper insight into tourists’ perceptions, motivations, and experiences [95].

4.2. Sampling and Data Collection

4.2.1. Quantitative Survey

The target population for the quantitative survey consists of tourists who have experienced Metaverse applications which in some ways are related to cultural tourism along the Silk Roads. We used a purposive sampling technique to recruit participants who met the following criteria:

• Aged 18 or above;
• Had used Metaverse applications (e.g., VR, AR) for cultural tourism purposes within the past 12 months;
• Have an interest in, or experience with, Silk Road destinations.

These criteria were established to ensure that participants had relevant and recent experience with the phenomenon under study (Metaverse cultural tourism) and could provide meaningful insights related to the research questions.

Participants were recruited through online platforms, including social media, tourism forums, and Metaverse user communities, and via collaboration with Metaverse tourism application providers and Silk Road destination marketing organizations. This diversified recruitment strategy was designed to obtain a broad and representative sample of the target population.

Considering the sample size requirements for structural equation modeling and the need for a representative sample of the diverse Silk Road tourist population, our target was a total of 500 valid responses [96,97,98]. The target sample size for the quantitative survey was set at 500 participants. This figure was determined based on the requirements for structural equation modeling (SEM) and the objective of achieving a representative sample of the diverse Silk Road tourist population. According to Hair et al. [99], a minimum sample size of 200 is recommended for SEM analysis, with larger samples providing more stable and precise estimates. Therefore, a sample of 500 participants (see Table S2) was considered adequate to capture the diversity of the target population in terms of demographic characteristics, Metaverse application usage, and Silk Road tourism experiences.

The survey questionnaire (see Table S3) was designed to capture participants’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors related to their Metaverse cultural tourism experiences. It consisted of several question blocks covering the following themes:

• Metaverse features: Questions in this block assessed participants’ perceptions of immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity within the Metaverse environment. A sample question is “I felt completely immersed in the Metaverse environment”. (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).
• Causal attributions: This block included questions measuring participants’ attributions of their Metaverse experiences along the dimensions of locus of causality, stability, and controllability. For example, “My Metaverse experience was largely due to my own actions and choices”. (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).
• Satisfaction and behavioral intentions: Questions in this block assessed participants’ overall satisfaction with their Metaverse cultural tourism experience and their intentions to recommend, continue using, and visit physical Silk Road destinations. A sample item is “I am satisfied with my overall Metaverse cultural tourism experience”. (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).
• Demographics: The final block collected demographic information such as age, gender, education level, and country of origin.

The survey questionnaire consisted of items measuring the constructs in the conceptual framework, adapted from validated scales from the literature. We measured Metaverse features (immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity) based on items adapted from Buhalis et al. [23], Bailey et al. [91], and Chhabra et al. [92]. The tourists’ causal attributions (locus of causality, stability, and controllability) were assessed using items based on attribution theory [19]. Satisfaction and behavioral intention (word-of-mouth, continuance, and visit intentions) were measured using items adapted from Chen et al. [78] and Jackson et al. [90]. We rated all items on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

The survey incorporated images of digital twin prototypes of historical Silk Road cities (as described in Section 6) to provide visual context and aid participants in recalling their Metaverse experiences. These images were presented alongside the relevant questions to enhance the realism and immersion of the survey.

The survey was administered online using Qualtrics, a secure and user-friendly survey platform. Participants were provided with information about the study’s purpose and confidentiality before providing informed consent. They were also told that their participation was voluntary, and that they could withdraw at any time for any reason. The average completion time was approximately 15 min.

4.2.2. Qualitative Interviews

We conducted semi-structured interviews with a sub-sample of 30 participants who had completed the quantitative survey and expressed a willingness to participate in further research. The qualitative sample size was determined based on the principles of data saturation and the desire for in-depth, rich insights into participants’ experiences, perceptions, and evaluations of Metaverse cultural tourism along the Silk Roads. The interviews were conducted via video conferencing platforms (e.g., Zoom, Skype, and Tencent).

Data saturation is a guiding principle in qualitative research, referring to the point at which no new themes or insights emerge from additional data collection [100]. While the exact sample size required to reach saturation can vary depending on the study’s scope and complexity, a sample of 30 participants (see Table S4) was considered sufficient to capture a wide range of perspectives and experiences, while also allowing for the identification of common patterns and themes.

The subsample for the qualitative interviews was selected using a purposive sampling approach, aiming to include participants with diverse demographic backgrounds, levels of Metaverse experience, and familiarity with Silk Road destinations. This diversity in the qualitative sample aimed to ensure that a wide range of viewpoints and experiences were represented in the data.

The interview guide (see Table S5) included open-ended questions covering topics such as motivations for using Metaverse applications for cultural tourism, experiences with Silk Road-related Metaverse content, perceptions of immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity, attributions of positive and negative experiences, satisfaction with the Metaverse tourism experience, and intentions for future travel and engagement. The interviews lasted approximately 45–60 min and were transcribed verbatim for analysis.

4.2.3. Data Collection Process

To ensure the robustness and validity of our findings, we employed a multi-faceted approach to data collection. In addition to leveraging metaverse communities, such as online forums, social media groups, and virtual reality enthusiast networks for participant recruitment, we also partnered with Silk Road destination marketing organizations and Metaverse tourism application providers. This strategy was designed to mitigate potential biases that could arise from relying exclusively on metaverse communities and to encompass a broader spectrum of experiences and perspectives.

Participants were selected based on their experience with Metaverse cultural tourism applications and their interest in Silk Road destinations. Specifically, they were asked about their familiarity with virtual tours, 360-degree videos, and immersive experiences related to cultural heritage sites along the Silk Road. Only individuals who had engaged with such applications within the past two years and demonstrated a genuine interest in Silk Road tourism were included in the study. These criteria were established to ensure the quality and representativeness of the data collected.

4.3. Data Analysis

4.3.1. Quantitative Data Analysis

We analyzed the quantitative survey data using structural equation modeling (SEM) in AMOS 26, a software package for multivariate data analysis [96,97]. Following a two-step approach, we first assessed the measurement model through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to ensure the constructs’ reliability and validity, and then tested the structural model to examine the hypothesized relationships between variables [98,101,102,103].

We evaluated the measurement model based on model fit indices (e.g., root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), and Tucker–Lewis index (TLI)), convergent validity (factor loadings, average variance extracted), and discriminant validity [104,105]. Then, we assessed the structural model using path coefficients, significance levels, and explained variance (R²) for the endogenous variables. We tested the tourists’ causal attributions’ mediation effects using bootstrapping procedures [102,106,107,108].

4.3.2. Qualitative Data Analysis

We analyzed the qualitative interview data using thematic analysis (see Table S6), a flexible and widely used method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within qualitative data [109,110,111]. In doing so, we followed the six-phase approach to thematic analysis, i.e., familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing a report [109,112].

We conducted the analysis in NVivo 12, a qualitative data analysis software that facilitates data organization, coding, and retrieval [110,113,114,115,116]. The focus of the analysis was identifying themes related to tourists’ experiences, attributions, and evaluations of Metaverse cultural tourism along the Silk Roads, as well as their views on the Metaverse’s role in enhancing cultural tourism within the BRI context. With the qualitative findings in hand, we complemented, validated, and enriched the quantitative results, providing a more holistic understanding of the research phenomena.

4.4. AI-Assisted Writing and Image Generation

This manuscript was prepared with the assistance of AI language models, specifically Claude (version 3 Opus) by Anthropic, PBC, and ChatGPT-4 by OpenAI. These tools were used for proofreading, suggesting improvements to sentence structure, grammar, overall readability, especially certain sections of the manuscript, such as the introduction and literature review. The authors made the final decisions on accepting or rejecting these suggestions based on their expertise and understanding of the subject matter to ensure accuracy, coherence, and alignment with the research objectives.

Additionally, the AI image generation model DALL-E, developed by OpenAI, was utilized to create visual mockups and digital twin visualizations of historical Silk Road cities based on textual descriptions provided by the authors, as presented in Section 6 of this manuscript. The AI-generated images were further edited and customized by the authors to better suit the research context and objectives.

4.5. Ethical Considerations

This study adheres to the ethical principles outlined in the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments, aimed at protecting human participants involved in research. As the study involved minimal risk and used only non-invasive procedures, formal Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was not required. Nonetheless, all procedures performed were in strict accordance with ethical standards.

Participants were informed about the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits through an oral consent process, which was appropriately documented to maintain a high ethical standard. We ensured that all communications were clear and understandable, using interpreters as necessary to accommodate non-English speakers.

Confidentiality and anonymity were rigorously upheld through the use of pseudonyms and secure data handling practices. Data were stored on password-protected servers with access limited to the research team. We emphasized to all participants that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without any repercussions.

The potential benefits of this research include contributing to the understanding of how emerging technologies, such as the Metaverse, can be harnessed to enhance cultural tourism experiences, promote cultural heritage preservation, and support sustainable development along the Silk Roads within the Belt and Road Initiative framework. The insights gained from this study may inform policymaking, destination management, and technological innovation, ultimately benefiting local communities, tourism stakeholders, and the wider society.

Our research team is dedicated to maintaining the highest standards of transparency, integrity, and responsible conduct throughout the research process. We believe that the potential benefits of this research justify the involvement of human participants, while ensuring that their rights, safety, and well-being are protected at all times.

5. Results

5.1. Respondent Profiles

To enhance the interpretability and generalizability of our findings, we present a comprehensive description of the respondent profiles. (

Table 1. Demographic profile of survey respondents (summary). Source: the authors.

Characteristic	Frequency	Percentage
Age
-18–24	120	24%
-25–34	200	40%
-35–44	110	22%
-45–54	50	10%
-55+	20	4%
Education Level
-High School or lower	50	10%
-Bachelor’s Degree	300	60%
-Master’s Degree	120	24%
-Doctoral Degree	30	6%
Country/Region of Origin
-China	150	30%
-Middle East	100	20%
-Europe	120	24%
-North America	80	16%
-Other	50	10%

) summarizes the key demographic variables and relevant Metaverse and Silk Road tourism experience indicators of the study participants. The detailed demographic profile of the survey respondents can be found in (Tables S2 and S4).

As shown in (Table 1), the sample consisted of participants from diverse age groups, educational backgrounds, and countries of origin. Notable patterns include a relatively high proportion of young adults (25–34 years old), individuals with a bachelor’s degree or higher, and participants from China, Europe, and North America. This composition aligns with the typical profile of tech-savvy and culturally curious travelers who are likely to engage with Metaverse cultural tourism applications.

The respondent profiles have important implications for the interpretation of our findings. Factors such as cultural background, technology adoption, and travel preferences may influence perceptions and experiences of Metaverse cultural tourism. For example, participants from countries with a strong cultural connection to the Silk Road, such as China and Central Asian nations, may have different motivations and expectations compared to those from more distant regions. Similarly, individuals with higher levels of education and technology proficiency may be more receptive to and engaged with immersive digital experiences.

However, we acknowledge certain limitations associated with the sample composition. The underrepresentation of older age groups and certain geographical regions may limit the generalizability of our findings to the broader population of potential Metaverse cultural tourism users. Future research could address these limitations by targeting specific demographic segments, such as older adults or travelers from underrepresented countries, and conducting cross-cultural comparisons to uncover potential variations in perceptions and behaviors.

5.2. Quantitative Findings

5.2.1. Measurement Model Assessment

The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) results indicate that there is good fit between the measurement model and the data (RMSEA = 0.048, CFI = 0.967, TLI = 0.962). Additionally, all factor loadings were significant (p < 0.001) and exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.7, thus demonstrating convergent validity [96]. The average variance extracted (AVE) values for each construct surpassed 0.5, further supporting convergent validity (see Table S7). Discriminant validity was established using the Fornell–Larcker criterion, as the square root of each construct’s AVE was greater than its correlations with other constructs [104,105].

5.2.2. Structural Model Assessment

The structural model (see Table S8) demonstrates a good fit to the data (RMSEA = 0.051, CFI = 0.961, TLI = 0.957). Furthermore, the path coefficients and their significance levels support most of the proposed relationships (

Table 2. Structural model results. Source: the authors.

Path	β	p-Value
Immersion → Internal Attribution	0.32	<0.001
Avatar Identification → Internal Attribution	0.28	<0.001
Cultural Authenticity → External Attribution	0.08 (ns)	>0.05
Internal Attribution → Satisfaction	0.41	<0.001
Stable Attribution → Satisfaction	0.25	<0.001
Controllable Attribution → Satisfaction	0.22	<0.01
External Attribution → Satisfaction	−0.17	<0.01
Uncontrollable Attribution → Satisfaction	−0.14	<0.05
Satisfaction → Word-of-Mouth Intentions	0.45	<0.001
Satisfaction → Continuance Intentions	0.39	<0.001
Satisfaction → Visit Intentions	0.36	<0.001

Note: ns = not significant.

). Also, immersion (β = 0.32, p < 0.001), avatar identification (β = 0.28, p < 0.001), and cultural authenticity (β = 0.19, p < 0.01) positively influence internal attributions. This supports P1 and P2. However, the relationship between cultural authenticity and external attributions is insignificant (β = 0.08, p > 0.05). Thus, there is only partial support for P3.

Internal (β = 0.41, p < 0.001), stable (β = 0.25, p < 0.001), and controllable attributions (β = 0.22, p < 0.01) positively influence satisfaction, while external (β = −0.17, p < 0.01) and uncontrollable attributions (β = −0.14, p < 0.05) negatively influence satisfaction. This supports P4 and P5. In turn, satisfaction positively influences word-of-mouth intention (β = 0.45, p < 0.001), continuance intention (β = 0.39, p < 0.001), and visit intention (β = 0.36, p < 0.001).

The mediation analysis reveals that internal, stable, and controllable attributions partially mediate the relationships between Metaverse features (immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity) and satisfaction. The results indicate that the indirect effects are significant (p < 0.01), based on bootstrapping with 5000 resamples.

5.3. Qualitative Findings

The thematic analysis of the interview data (see Table S6) reveals three overarching themes related to tourists’ experiences and evaluations of Metaverse cultural tourism along the Silk Roads:

• The Metaverse as a gateway to cultural heritage;
• Attribution processes which shape Metaverse tourism experiences;
• The Metaverse’s role in enhancing cultural tourism within the BRI.

The Metaverse as a Gateway to Cultural Heritage

Participants highlighted the Metaverse’s potential to provide immersive, engaging, and accessible Silk Road cultural heritage experiences. They appreciated the opportunity for vivid and interactive exploration of historical sites, artifacts, and intangible cultural assets free from the constraints of physical travel (see Table S5). As Participant 12 noted,

“The Metaverse allows me to step into the past and experience the richness of Silk Road cultures in a way that feels authentic and captivating” (Participant 12).

Participants also emphasized the educational value of Metaverse cultural tourism, as it provides them with the opportunity to learn about the history, traditions, and diversity of Silk Road civilizations. The Metaverse’s capacity to provide contextualized information, virtual guides, and interactive elements enhances the learning experience, as exemplified by the following quote:

“I feel like I gained a deeper understanding of the Silk Roads through the Metaverse. The virtual tours, multimedia content, and interactive activities brought the stories and significance of these ancient routes to life” (Participant 21).

However, participants also raised concerns about the accessibility, inclusivity, and long-term sustainability of Metaverse tourism within the BRI context. They emphasized the need to alleviate digital divides, ensure local community participation and benefit-sharing, and critically evaluate the social, cultural, and economic implications of Metaverse tourism development. As Participant 24 reflected,

“While the Metaverse holds great promise for enhancing cultural tourism along the Silk Roads, we must ensure that its development is inclusive, sustainable, and guided by the needs and aspirations of the communities it aims to serve” (Participant 24).

5.4. Integrating the Quantitative and Qualitative Findings

The integration of quantitative and qualitative findings provides a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of how the Metaverse can be harnessed to improve cultural tourism along the Silk Roads within the context of the BRI. The quantitative results support the proposed conceptual framework, highlighting the connections between Metaverse features, tourists’ causal attributions, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions. Our qualitative findings complement and enrich these results by providing context-specific insight into tourists’ experiences, perceptions, and their evaluations of cultural tourism in the Metaverse.

Moreover, these qualitative findings underscore the Metaverse’s potential to provide immersive, engaging, and educational experiences with Silk Road cultural heritage, while concurrently revealing concerns over cultural authenticity, commodification, and sustainability. The attribution processes we identified in the qualitative data align with our quantitative results. This illustrates the role of internal and external attributions in shaping tourists’ satisfaction and intentions. Furthermore, the qualitative findings shed light on the broader implications of Metaverse tourism for cultural exchange, sustainable development, and realizing the objectives of the BRI.

Additionally, the mixed-methods approach we employed allows for a more robust and holistic understanding of the factors which influence the success of Metaverse cultural tourism along the Silk Roads. This provides essential insight for both theory development and practical applications.

6. Virtual Silk Road: Metaverse Digital Twins of Historical Cities

The findings of our empirical study underscore the potential of Metaverse technologies to revolutionize cultural heritage and tourism experiences. Building upon these insights, we present a conceptual design for the development of Metaverse digital twins of historical Silk Road cities. These virtual environments aim to showcase the rich cultural heritage and promote sustainable tourism along the Silk Road, aligning with the objectives and themes explored in our research.

This study investigates the development of participatory Metaverse environments to establish economically sustainable 3D virtual worlds that facilitate the conservation and dissemination of cultural heritage associated with the Silk Road. In this chapter, we present the creation of digital twin prototypes for a selection of historically significant Silk Road cities. These virtual reconstructions aim to provide immersive and interactive experiences that enable users to engage with the rich cultural legacy of the Silk Road, promoting global understanding and appreciation of this vital historical trade network. By leveraging the potential of the Metaverse, this research seeks to bridge the gap between the past and the present, ensuring that the cultural heritage of the Silk Road remains accessible and relevant in the digital age.

The development of Metaverse environments necessitates the integration of methodologies from a range of disciplines, such as geographic visualization, architecture, and game design, as depicted in (Figure 2). This interdisciplinary conceptual framework harnesses expertise from human–computer interaction, visual computing, economics, and environmental sciences. It provides a structured approach to converting digital innovations into practical policy implementations that uphold cultural heritage and promote societal well-being. This synthesis of diverse technical and theoretical perspectives ensures that the virtual environments constructed are not only technologically advanced but also culturally and socially responsive [18].

The development of these interactive virtual doubles offers significant potential for tourism agencies and companies aiming to establish a captivating Metaverse presence. This innovation facilitates immersive customer experiences by enabling virtual exploration of the historic cities’ landmarks, streets, and cultural sites along the Silk Roads, as illustrated in (Figure 3). Such technological advancements allow travel firms, municipal administrations, museums, and local businesses to enhance their service offerings, fostering a deeper engagement with cultural heritage through digital means.

Each digital twin prototype acts as a testbed according to this framework, reflecting the unique landmarks, architecture, and spatial fabric of the respective Silk Road cities. For example, the Xi’an digital twin showcases the ancient Silk Road starting point’s iconic sites, such as the Terracotta Warriors, the ancient city walls, and the vibrant Muslim Quarter. Similarly, the Dunhuang digital twin brings to life the Mogao Caves with their exquisite Buddhist murals (see Figure 4). The Samarkand digital twin highlights the city’s stunning, blue-tiled mosques and madrasas. The Merv digital twin revives the ancient oasis city, emphasizing its historical significance as a major stop on the Silk Road with landmarks like the Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum and the extensive archaeological sites that reveal layers of cultural heritage (see Figure 5). The Isfahan twin captures the grandeur of Naqsh-e Jahan Square and its surrounding architecture. The Tabriz digital twin captures the essence of this historic Persian city, focusing on its famous bazaar, one of the oldest marketplaces in the Middle East, and other significant sites like the Blue Mosque and the El Goli Park, providing insights into the city’s rich cultural tapestry (see Figure 6). Babylon is revived through its imposing Ishtar Gate and the speculative Hanging Gardens. The Mosul digital twin reconstructs the ancient city, highlighting landmarks like the Al-Nuri Mosque with its iconic leaning minaret and the ancient ruins that reflect its status as a cultural and commercial hub on the historic Silk Road. This digital twin also delves into the recent history of Mosul, showcasing efforts for restoration and peacebuilding in the region (see Figure 7). Palmyra’s digital twin restores its ancient ruins and famed colonnades, offering a glimpse into its prosperous past. The Aleppo digital twin reconstructs the historical cityscape, including the ancient Citadel and the vibrant souks (see Figure 8). Antakya, ancient Antioch, is featured with its rich history as a center of early Christianity, showcased through detailed recreations of its ancient landmarks. Constantinople (Istanbul) is vividly brought back to life, allowing users to traverse through historical sites like the Hagia Sophia and the bustling Grand Bazaar (see Figure 9). In Tyre, users can explore the well-preserved Roman ruins and the historic harbors that outline its importance as a Phoenician trade center. The Alexandria digital twin resurrects this pivotal ancient Egyptian city, once home to the legendary Lighthouse of Alexandria and the great Library of Alexandria. Users can explore these symbolic beacons of knowledge and navigation, along with the city’s vibrant Greco-Roman architectural influences (see Figure 10). The Athens digital twin offers an immersive journey through classical antiquity, emphasizing the Acropolis and the Agora. The Venice digital twin allows users to navigate the iconic canals, bridges, and architecture of this key maritime trading hub (see Figure 11).

The design of these digital twins incorporates elements of immersion, authenticity, and interactivity, which were found to be key factors influencing users’ experiences and perceptions in our empirical study (see Section 5.2 and Section 5.3).

Incorporating essential elements such as reproducible digital assets, interactive quests, and the capability for users to collect mementos and engage in transactions at virtual storefronts is crucial for crafting an engaging visitor experience that promotes ongoing engagement. This strategy focuses on creating accurate, multisensory, and socially interactive replicas that resonate with technologically adept travelers, thereby enhancing cultural understanding and appreciation among stakeholders within the tourism industry.

By creating a network of interconnected virtual Silk Road cities, this project aims to revitalize the shared cultural heritage, promote sustainable tourism development, and raise awareness about the need for the preservation and restoration of endangered sites along the historic trade routes. The Metaverse digital twins not only serve as engaging tourism platforms but also as powerful tools for cultural conservation, education, and research, ensuring that the rich legacy of the Silk Road endures and remains accessible for generations to come.

6.1. AI-Generated Images: Input Data, Cultural Value, and Future Directions

6.1.1. Input Data for Image Creation

The AI-generated images featured in this study were crafted using detailed textual descriptions and historical contexts of various significant cultural and historical sites along the Silk Roads. For instance, the creation of the conceptual digital twin of Xi’an was based on the following input data:

“The digital twin of Xi’an brings to life the historical and cultural richness of this ancient Chinese city, once the starting point of the Silk Road. This virtual environment is a dynamic, interactive 3D model that showcases the city’s significant landmarks, traditional neighborhoods, and cultural heritage.”

The input data for Xi’an included detailed descriptions of key features such as the ancient city walls, the Terracotta Warriors, the Muslim Quarter, and the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda. Similarly, comprehensive descriptions were used to generate images for other sites discussed in the paper, including Dunhuang, Samarkand, and Merv.

6.1.2. Integration with Digital Twin Project

The AI-generated images are seamlessly incorporated into the larger digital twin project, serving as visual anchors for the virtual environments. These images enhance interactive elements such as virtual tours, educational workshops, and social interaction features by providing realistic and immersive visual representations of historical sites. Additionally, they form the basis for the historical narratives and cultural context presented within the digital twins.

6.1.3. Limitations and Challenges

Although AI-generated images provide significant advantages for cultural heritage representation, it is important to recognize their potential limitations and challenges. These images may not always capture the full complexity and nuances of cultural heritage, posing a risk of inaccuracies or misrepresentations. To address these issues, human oversight and interpretation by cultural heritage experts are essential to ensure the accuracy and cultural sensitivity of the generated images.

6.1.4. Future Directions and Applications

The use of AI-generated images for cultural heritage representation offers promising opportunities for future collaborations and applications. We foresee partnerships with cultural institutions, such as museums and heritage organizations, to develop immersive and engaging virtual experiences that highlight their collections and sites. Furthermore, these AI-generated images can be utilized to create educational resources, including virtual field trips and interactive learning materials, thereby making cultural heritage more accessible to students and the general public.

7. Discussion

7.1. Theoretical Implications

This study’s findings offer several crucial contributions to the theoretical understanding of Metaverse tourism, and the application of attribution theory in the context of cultural tourism along the Silk Roads. These are summarized below:

• Empirical validation of conceptual framework: Our research substantiates the proposed framework, illustrating how immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity significantly drive positive evaluations of tourism experiences in the Metaverse. This empirical validation reinforces and extends the principles outlined in prior studies [23,92].
• Extension of attribution theory: The application of attribution theory to Metaverse tourism highlights the role of internal, stable, and controllable attributions in enhancing tourists’ satisfaction and subsequent behaviors. This adaptation of the theory provides new insights into the psychological mechanisms influencing digital tourism interactions [19,90].
• Integration with cultural tourism and sustainability: Our findings underscore the Metaverse’s role in fostering cultural exchange and addressing sustainability challenges, offering novel pathways for integrating advanced technologies with heritage tourism initiatives [15,16,33,34].
• Contextualization within the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): By contextualizing the study within the BRI framework, we explore the synergies and challenges of employing emerging technologies in multinational cultural connectivity projects, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive, sustainable approaches [19].
• Methodological contribution: Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, this study underscores the benefits of combining quantitative and qualitative data to gain deeper insights into complex phenomena like Metaverse tourism. This methodological integration allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the attributions and behaviors of tourists, thereby enriching theoretical development and refinement [94,95].

The information about data collection and respondent profiles strengthens the theoretical implications of our findings by highlighting the diversity and representativeness of our sample. By incorporating participants from various metaverse communities, Silk Road destinations, and Metaverse tourism application providers, we enhance the external validity of our results and demonstrate the broader applicability of our theoretical framework across different user segments and contexts.

7.2. Practical Implications

This study’s findings offer several practical implications for tourism stakeholders, including destination managers, policymakers, and Metaverse platform providers:

• Design of Metaverse experiences: To maximize the educational and immersive potential of Metaverse tourism, it is imperative for destination managers and developers to create experiences that are not only engaging but also historically accurate and culturally respectful. Collaboration with local experts and communities will ensure authentic cultural representation [23].
• Technical and experiential enhancements: Enhancing the technical robustness of Metaverse platforms is crucial. Improvements should focus on user interface design, system stability, and accessibility, ensuring a seamless and inclusive user experience [36].
• Promotion of sustainable tourism: The Metaverse offers a platform for promoting sustainable tourism practices by providing virtual alternatives to physical travel, which can help preserve sensitive sites and manage tourist footprints effectively [23,43,50].
• Interconnected digital twins: Creating a network of interconnected digital twins can not only enhance cultural heritage appreciation but also promote sustainable tourism and conservation efforts. These virtual platforms can serve as powerful tools for education, engagement, and research [39,40,80,81,82].

The detailed respondent profiles offer valuable insights for practitioners seeking to design and promote Metaverse cultural tourism experiences. The demographic and experiential characteristics of our participants can inform the development of targeted marketing strategies and personalized content tailored to specific user segments. For instance, the high proportion of young, tech-savvy individuals in our sample suggests that Metaverse tourism applications should prioritize immersive, interactive features and social sharing capabilities to appeal to this audience. Additionally, the cultural diversity of our participants underscores the importance of creating culturally sensitive and inclusive virtual environments that cater to the needs and preferences of a global user base.

7.3. Limitations and Future Research Directions

While this study provides valuable insights into the potential of Metaverse tourism for cultural heritage along the Silk Roads, it is essential to acknowledge its limitations and identify areas for future research:

• Multi-stakeholder perspective: The current study primarily focuses on the tourist perspective. Future research should adopt a multi-stakeholder approach, exploring the perceptions, challenges, and opportunities associated with Metaverse tourism development from the viewpoints of local communities, tourism operators, and policymakers. This holistic understanding can inform more inclusive and sustainable strategies [83].
• Technical, infrastructural, and regulatory aspects: Additional research is needed to address the infrastructural and regulatory challenges of implementing Metaverse technology in the tourism sector, ensuring its sustainable and equitable development across different regions [83].
• Long-term sustainability studies: Longitudinal research is required to assess the enduring impacts of Metaverse tourism on cultural heritage preservation and community welfare, guiding sustainable tourism development [23,43].

Despite these limitations, this study provides a strong foundation for future research on the Metaverse’s role in enhancing cultural tourism experiences and supporting sustainable development along the Silk Roads, within the BRI framework. As the Metaverse continues its process of evolution and maturation, it presents a rich and dynamic field for scholarly inquiry with important implications for tourism theory, practice, and policy.

7.4. Implications for Metaverse Digital Twins

Our empirical findings have significant implications for the design and implementation of Metaverse digital twins in the context of cultural heritage and tourism. The conceptual design presented in Section 6 demonstrates how the insights gained from our study can inform the development of immersive, authentic, and engaging virtual environments.

The digital twins of Silk Road cities, such as Xi’an, Dunhuang, and Samarkand, showcase the potential of Metaverse technologies to address the challenges and opportunities identified in our research. By providing accessible, interactive, and educational experiences, these virtual environments can contribute to cultural preservation, sustainable tourism, and global understanding (see Section 6).

However, the development of Metaverse digital twins also raises important considerations, such as the need for cultural sensitivity, historical accuracy, and user-centered design (see Section 6). Our findings emphasize the importance of collaborating with cultural heritage experts, local communities, and diverse stakeholders to ensure the authenticity and inclusivity of these virtual environments.

Future research and practice in this area should build upon the insights and recommendations derived from our empirical study, exploring the impact and effectiveness of Metaverse digital twins in promoting cultural heritage and sustainable tourism along the Silk Road and beyond.

7.5. Implications for Sustainable 3D Virtual Worlds of Silk Road Cultural Heritage

The findings of this study have significant implications for developing sustainable 3D virtual worlds that showcase the cultural heritage of the Silk Roads. The Metaverse, with its capacity to create immersive, interactive, and engaging experiences, offers a powerful tool for promoting cultural preservation, sustainable tourism, community engagement, educational outreach, and technological innovation within the context of the Silk Roads.

Our results underscore the importance of authenticity, cultural sensitivity, and user engagement in shaping positive experiences and perceptions of Metaverse cultural tourism. The conceptual framework, based on attribution theory, provides a foundation for understanding how users’ causal attributions influence their satisfaction and behavioral intentions. These insights can guide the design and management of virtual heritage experiences that foster meaningful connections, respect cultural diversity, and encourage responsible engagement with Silk Road heritage.

The development of digital twins of historical Silk Road cities, as demonstrated in this study, highlights the potential of the Metaverse to offer sustainable alternatives to physical travel. By providing immersive, accessible, and educational experiences, these virtual environments can help mitigate the environmental and social impacts of tourism, such as overcrowding, resource depletion, and cultural commodification. The digital twins serve not only as a means of cultural preservation but also offer opportunities for sustainable economic development through virtual tourism services and cultural heritage education.

Moreover, our findings emphasize the importance of community engagement and participatory approaches in creating and managing Silk Road virtual heritage experiences. Involving local stakeholders, such as cultural heritage experts, community leaders, and artists, ensures that virtual environments accurately represent and respect the diverse cultural contexts along the Silk Roads. Collaborative efforts between technology providers, cultural institutions, and local communities can foster equitable benefits, capacity building, and a sense of ownership among stakeholders.

The Metaverse also presents significant opportunities for educational outreach and cross-cultural understanding. Our results suggest that immersive, interactive experiences can effectively engage users and facilitate learning about the history, traditions, and significance of Silk Road sites and cultures. Integrating AI-generated content, such as the images showcased in this study, can further enhance the educational potential of Metaverse environments by providing dynamic, personalized, and culturally responsive experiences. However, the use of AI also raises important considerations regarding authenticity, ethics, and user trust, which must be carefully addressed in developing and applying these technologies.

This study contributes to the growing body of research on the Metaverse and its applications in cultural heritage and tourism. The findings offer valuable insights into leveraging the Metaverse to support sustainable 3D virtual worlds of Silk Road cultural heritage, promoting cultural preservation, sustainable tourism, community engagement, educational outreach, and technological innovation. As the Metaverse continues to evolve and mature, it is crucial to develop responsible and inclusive strategies that harness its potential while addressing the challenges and ethical considerations associated with its use in cultural heritage contexts.

8. Conclusions

This study has explored the potential of the Metaverse to enhance cultural tourism along the Silk Roads within the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Employing a mixed-methods approach grounded in attribution theory, we have analyzed the relationships between Metaverse features and tourists’ perceptions, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions.

Our findings indicate that immersion, avatar identification, and cultural authenticity significantly influence tourists’ attributions, which in turn enhance satisfaction and encourage positive behavioral intentions. These elements are crucial in designing Metaverse experiences that are not only immersive and engaging but also culturally sensitive and educationally enriching. The development of digital twins of historical Silk Road cities demonstrates how virtual environments can effectively preserve cultural heritage and support sustainable tourism. These prototypes provide practical examples of the Metaverse’s capacity to facilitate deep, meaningful cultural exchanges without the physical and environmental impacts associated with traditional tourism.

Furthermore, this study contributes to the theoretical frameworks of Metaverse tourism by empirically validating the role of attributional processes in enhancing tourists’ experiences. It extends the discourse on integrating advanced technologies with cultural tourism, offering valuable insights for policymakers, destination managers, and technology providers. However, the study also acknowledges challenges such as accessibility, the digital divide, cultural commodification, and sustainability. Addressing these issues requires continued multidisciplinary research and collaborative efforts among stakeholders to ensure that Metaverse tourism developments benefit local communities and promote global cultural understanding. As the first empirical investigation of its kind, our research lays a solid foundation for future studies and innovations at the intersection of emerging technologies and sustainable tourism. By advancing responsible and inclusive strategies, we can harness the Metaverse to create transformative cultural tourism experiences that uphold the rich heritage of the Silk Roads and support the BRI’s goals of enhanced connectivity, cooperation, and cultural exchange.

Additionally, we propose several areas for future research to further advance the understanding and application of Metaverse tourism in cultural heritage contexts. First, it is crucial to investigate the long-term impact of Metaverse tourism on both the preservation of cultural heritage and the economic development of local communities. Longitudinal studies can provide valuable insights into the sustainability and effectiveness of Metaverse initiatives over time. Second, exploring how emerging technologies, such as AI and blockchain, can enhance the authenticity and security of Metaverse cultural experiences is an important avenue for future research. These technologies have the potential to improve data management, user privacy, and content integrity within Metaverse environments. Finally, conducting studies that include a wider range of demographic segments is essential to ensure the inclusivity and accessibility of Metaverse tourism. Future research should aim to understand the diverse needs, preferences, and challenges of different user groups, such as older adults, individuals with disabilities, and people from underrepresented cultural backgrounds.

This paper offers valuable insights into the role of the Metaverse in promoting cultural tourism along the Silk Roads within the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) framework. The findings, along with the proposed conceptual framework and the development of digital twin prototypes, contribute to the growing body of knowledge on Metaverse tourism and its potential to support sustainable development and cultural heritage preservation. As we move forward, it is crucial to continue exploring the opportunities and challenges presented by the Metaverse, fostering responsible innovation and inclusive collaboration to create a more connected, sustainable, and culturally vibrant future. By addressing the identified research gaps and building upon the findings of this study, scholars and practitioners can continue to advance the field of Metaverse cultural tourism, ensuring its responsible development and maximizing its potential to support cultural heritage preservation, sustainable tourism, and global understanding along the Silk Roads and beyond.