The Role of Child’s Age, Sex, and Temperament in Father Involvement during the Pre-School Years
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Child’s Age
1.2. Child’s Sex
1.3. Child’s Temperament
1.4. Interactions between Child Characteristics
1.5. Covariates
1.6. Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Instruments
2.3. Plan of Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Regression Models for Group 1: 3–4 Years Old
3.2. Regression Models for Group 2: 5–6 Years Old
4. Discussion
Limitations, Strengths and Future Research
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Cabrera, N.J.; Fitzgerald, H.E.; Bradley, R.H.; Roggman, L. The ecology of father-child relationships: An expanded model. J. Fam. Theory Rev. 2014, 6, 336–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cabrera, N.J.; Volling, B.L.; Barr, R. Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children’s development. Child Dev. Perspect. 2018, 12, 152–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pleck, J.H. Paternal Involvement: Revised Conceptualization and Theoretical Linkages with Child Outcomes. In The Role of the Father in Child Development, 5th ed.; Lamb, M.E., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010; pp. 58–93. [Google Scholar]
- Lamb, M.E. How Do Fathers Influence Children’s Development? Let Me Count the Ways. In The Role of the Father in Child Development, 5th ed.; Lamb, M.E., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010; pp. 1–26. [Google Scholar]
- Volling, B.L.; Cabrera, N.J. Advancing research and measurement on fathering and child development: I. Advancing research and measurement on fathering and child development: Introducing the issues and a conceptual framework. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 2019, 84, 7–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cabrera, N.J.; Fitzgerald, H.E.; Bradley, R.H.; Roggman, L. Modeling the dynamics of paternal influences on children over their life course. Appl. Dev. Sci. 2007, 11, 185–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamb, M.E.; Lewis, C. The Development and Significance of Fathers-Child Relationship in Two-Parent Families. In The Role of the Father in Child Development, 5th ed.; Lamb, M.E., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010; pp. 94–153. [Google Scholar]
- Parke, R.D. Father involvement: A developmental psychological perspective. J. Marriage Fam. Rev. 2000, 29, 43–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parke, R.D. Fatherhood; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1996. [Google Scholar]
- Belsky, J. The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Dev. 1984, 55, 83–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dinz, E.; Brandão, T.; Monteiro, L.; Veríssimo, M. Father involvement during early childhood: A systematic review of the literature. J. Fam. Theory Rev. 2021, 13, 77–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paquette, D. Theorizing the father-child relationship: Mechanisms and developmental outcomes. Hum. Dev. 2004, 47, 193–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sabbagh, M.A.; Stephanie, F.X.; Carlson, M.; Moses, L.J.; Lee, K. The development of executive functioning and theory of mind. A comparison of Chinese and U.S. preschoolers. Psychol. Sci. 2006, 17, 74–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parten, M.B. Social participation among pre-school children. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol. 1932, 27, 243–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- LaFreniere, P.; Strayer, F.F.; Gauthier, R. The emergence of same-sex affiliative preferences among preschool peers: A developmental/ethological perspective. Child Dev. 1984, 55, 1958–1965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meuwissen, A.S.; Carlson, S.M. The role of father parenting in children’s school readiness: A longitudinal follow-up. J. Fam. Psychol. 2018, 32, 588–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cook, G.A.; Roggman, L.A.; Boyce, L.K. Fathers’ and mothers’ cognitive stimulation in early play with toddlers: Predictors of 5th grade reading and math. Fam. Sci. 2011, 2, 131–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monteiro, L.; Maia, R.; Fernandes, C.; Fernandes, M.; Antunes, M.; Veríssimo, M. Uma análise exploratória das relações entre as representações de vinculação do pai e o seu envolvimento em atividades práticas e lúdicas [The associations between father’s attachment representations and his involvement in care/management and play/leisure activities: An exploratory analyses]. Anál. Psicol. 2019, 37, 507–519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kulik, L.; Sadeh, I. Explaining fathers’ involvement in childcare: An ecological approach. Community Work Fam. 2015, 18, 19–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torres, N.; Veríssimo, M.; Monteiro, L.; Ribeiro, O.; Santos, A.J. Domains of father involvement, social competence and problem behavior in preschool children. J. Fam. Stud. 2014, 20, 188–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ato, E.; Galián, M.D.; Fernández-Vilar, M.A. The moderating role of children’s effortful control in the relation between marital adjustment and parenting. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2015, 24, 3341–3349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lima, J. O Envolvimento Paterno nos Processos de Socialização da Criança. In Desenvolvimento: Contextos Familiares e Educativos; Ruivo, J.B., Ed.; Livpsic: Porto, Portugal, 2005; pp. 154–196. [Google Scholar]
- Monteiro, L.; Torres, N.; Salinas-Quiroz, F. Preditores do envolvimento paterno numa amostra de famílias portuguesas. O papel das crenças parentais [Predictors of father’s involvement in a sample of Portuguese families. The Role of parenting beliefs]. Suma Psicol. 2019, 26, 94–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monteiro, L.; Fernandes, M.; Veríssimo, M.; Pessoa e Costa, I.; Torres, N.; Vaughn, B.E. Perspectiva do pai acerca do seu envolvimento em famílias nucleares. Associações com o que é desejado pela mãe e com as características da criança [Father’s perception about their involvement in bi-parental families. Associations with what mothers want and children’s characteristics. Rev. Interam. Psicol. Interam. J. Psychol. 2010, 44, 120–130. [Google Scholar]
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. Factors associated with fathers’ caregiving activities and sensitivity with young children. J. Fam. Psychol. 2000, 14, 200–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. Child Care and Child Development; The Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Yeung, W.J.; Sandberg, J.F.; Davis-Kean, P.E.; Hofferth, S.L. Children’s with fathers in intact families. J. Marriage Fam. 2001, 63, 136–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Raley, S.; Bianchi, S. Sons, daughters, and family processes: Does gender of children matter? Annu. Rev. Sociol. 2006, 32, 401–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Emmott, E.H.; Mace, R. Why the son-bias in caregiving? Testing sex-differences in the associations between paternal caregiving and child outcomes in England. J. Fam. Issues 2020, 42, 1354–1383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pleck, J.H.; Masciadrelli, B. Paternal Involvement in U.S. Residential Fathers: Levels, Sources, and Consequences. In The Role of the Father in Child Development, 4th ed.; Lamb, M.E., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2004; pp. 222–271. [Google Scholar]
- Schoppe-Sullivan, S.J.; Kotila, L.; Jia, R.; Lang, S.N.; Bower, D.J. Comparisons of levels and predictors of mothers’ and fathers’ engagement with their preschool-aged children. Early Child Dev. Care 2013, 183, 498–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brown, G.L.; McBride, B.A.; Bost, K.K.; Shin, N. Parental involvement, child temperament, and parents’ work hours: Differential relations for mothers and fathers. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 2011, 32, 313–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cummings, E.M.; Davies, P.T.; Campbell, S.B. Developmental Psychopathology and Family Process: Theory, Research, and Clinical Implications; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Rothbart, M.K.; Ahadi, S.A. Temperament and the development of personality. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 1994, 103, 55–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Putnam, S.P.; Rothbart, M.K. Development of short and very short forms of the children’s behavior questionnaire. J. Personal. Assess. 2006, 87, 102–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rothbart, M.K.; Ahadi, S.A.; Evans, D.E. Temperament and personality: Origins and outcomes. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2000, 78, 122–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bates, J.E.; Schermerhorn, A.C.; Petersen, I.T. Temperament and Parenting in Developmental Perspective. In Handbook of Temperament; Zentner, M., Shiner, R.L., Eds.; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2012; pp. 425–441. [Google Scholar]
- Halford, W.K.; Petch, J.; Creedy, D. Clinical Guide to Helping New Parents; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- McBride, B.A.; Schoppe, S.J.; Rane, T.R. Child characteristics, parenting stress, and parental involvement: Fathers versus mothers. J. Marriage Fam. 2002, 64, 998–1011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mehall, K.G.; Spinrad, T.L.; Eisenberg, N.; Gaertner, B.M. Examining the relations of infant temperament and couples’ marital satisfaction to mother and father involvement: A longitudinal study. Fathering 2009, 7, 23–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aring, S.; Renk, K. Associations among young children’s temperament, parents’ perceptions of their young children, and characteristics of the parent-young child relationship. J. Early Child. Infant Psychol. 2010, 6, 59–83. [Google Scholar]
- Volling, B.L.; Belsky, J. Multiple determinants of father involvement during infancy in dual-earner and single-earner families. J. Marriage Fam. 1991, 53, 461–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torres, N.; Veríssimo, M.; Monteiro, L.; Santos, A.J.; Pessoa e Costa, I. Father involvement and peer play competence in preschoolers: The moderating effect of the child’s difficult temperament. Fam. Sci. 2012, 3, 174–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manlove, E.E.; Vernon-Feagans, L. Caring for infant daughters and sons in dual-earner households: Maternal reports of father involvement in weekday time and tasks. Infant Child Dev. 2002, 11, 305–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frodi, A.; Lamb, M.; Frodi, M.; Hwang, P.; Forsstrom, B.; Corry, T. Stability and change in parental attitudes following an infant’s birth into traditional and nontraditonal Swedish families. Scand. J. Psychol. 1982, 23, 53–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goldberg, W.A.; Clarke-Stewart, K.A.; Rice, J.A.; Dellis, E. Emotional energy as an explanatory construct for fathers’ engagement with their infants. Parent. Sci. Pract. 2002, 2, 379–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feldman, R. Infant-mother and infant-father synchrony: The coregulation of positive arousal. Infant Ment. Health J. 2003, 24, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gaertner, B.M.; Spinrad, T.L.; Eisenberg, N.; Greving, K.A. Parental childrearing attitudes as correlates of father involvement during infancy. J. Marriage Fam. 2007, 69, 962–976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hofferth, S.L.; Anderson, K.G. Are all dads equal? Biology versus marriage as a basis for parental investment. J. Marriage Fam. 2003, 65, 213–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monteiro, L.; Fernandes, M.; Torres, N.; Santos, C. Father’s involvement and parenting styles in Portuguese families: The role of education and working hours. Anál. Psicol. 2017, 35, 513–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paquette, D.; Bolté, C.; Turcotte, G.; Dubeau, D.; Bouchard, C. A new typology of fathering: Defining and associated variables. Infant Child Dev. Int. J. Res. Pract. 2000, 9, 213–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beitel, A.H.; Parke, R.D. Paternal involvement in infancy: The role of maternal and paternal attitudes. J. Fam. Psychol. 1998, 12, 268–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cabrera, N.J.; Shannon, J.D.; Tamis-LeMonda, C. Fathers’ influence on their children’s cognitive and emotional development: From toddlers to pre-K. Appl. Dev. Sci. 2007, 11, 208–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kiff, C.J.; Lengua, L.J.; Zalewski, M. Nature and nurturing: Parenting in the context of child temperament. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 2011, 14, 251–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monteiro, L.; Veríssimo, M.; Pessoa e Costa, I. Escala de Envolvimento Parental: Actividades de Cuidados e de Socialização [Parental Involvement Questionnaire: Child Care and Socialization Related Tasks] (Unpublished Manual); ISPA-Instituto Universitário: Lisboa, Portugal, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Franklin, L.; Soares, I.; Sampaio, A.; Santos, O.; Veríssimo, M. Children’s Behavior Questionnaire (Unpublished Manual); ISPA-Instituto Universitário: Lisboa, Portugal, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Lopes, A. Estudo das Qualidades Psicométricas do Children Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) para Avaliação do Temperamento de Crianças Portuguesas Entre os 3 e os 5 Anos [Psychometric Qualities Study of Children Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) to Temperament Evaluation of Portuguese Children within 3 and 5 Years Old]. Master’s Thesis, Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Cohen, J.; Cohen, P.; West, S.; Aiken, L. Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shmueli, G. To Explain or to Predict? Stat. Sci. 2010, 25, 289–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, M.J.; Higgins, J.P.T. Rethinking the assessment of risk of bias due to selective reporting: A cross-sectional study. Syst. Rev. 2016, 5, 108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craig, L. Does father care mean father share? A comparison of how mothers and fathers in impact families spend time with children. Gend. Soc. 2006, 20, 259–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santos, C.; Monteiro, L.; Torres, N.; Tereno, S. Implication paternelle chez des enfants d’âge préscolaire. Contributions des styles parentaux et de l’affectivité négative de l’enfant. Devenir 2021, 33, 221–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cabrera, N.J.; Tamis-LeMonda, C.S.; Bradley, R.H.; Hofferth, S.; Lamb, M.E. Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Dev. 2000, 71, 127–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, G.L.; McBride, B.A.; Shin, N.; Bost, K.K. Parenting predictors of father-child attachment security: Interactive effects of father involvement and fathering quality. Father. J. Theory Res. Pract. Men Father. 2007, 5, 197–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, G.L.; Mangelsdorf, S.C.; Neff, C. Father involvement, paternal sensitivity, and father−child attachment security in the first 3 years. J. Fam. Psychol. 2012, 26, 421–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Amato, P.R.; Keith, B. Parental divorce and well-being of children: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 1991, 110, 26–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grolnick, W.S.; Weiss, L.; McKenzie, L.; Wrightman, J. Contextual, cognitive, and adolescent factors associated with parenting in adolescence. J. Youth Adolesc. 1996, 25, 33–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Total Sample | Group 1: 3–4 Years | Group 2: 5–6 Years | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Max | M(SD) | Min | Max | M(SD) | Min | Max | M(SD) | |
Father involvement | |||||||||
Direct care | 1.00 | 3.70 | 2.50 (0.52) | 1.30 | 3.70 | 2.52 (0.52) | 1.00 | 3.60 | 2.49 (0.52) |
Indirect care | 1.00 | 4.14 | 2.35 (0.43) | 1.36 | 3.29 | 2.36 (0.38) | 1.00 | 4.14 | 2.34 (0.45) |
Teaching/Discipline | 1.00 | 3.70 | 2.86 (0.31) | 2.00 | 3.68 | 2.87 (0.30) | 1.00 | 3.70 | 2.85 (0.45) |
Play | 1.80 | 3.90 | 3.03 (0.35) | 2.10 | 3.80 | 3.00 (0.33) | 1.80 | 3.90 | 3.04 (0.36) |
Outdoor leisure | 1.00 | 4.13 | 2.85 (0.42) | 1.88 | 4.13 | 2.92 (0.39) | 1.00 | 3.88 | 2.820 (0.43) |
Child’s temperament | |||||||||
Extroversion | 2.00 | 6.75 | 4.94 (0.76) | 2.25 | 6.75 | 4.89 (0.72) | 2.00 | 6.63 | 4.96 (0.77) |
Effortful control | 4.00 | 6.88 | 5.59 (0.55) | 4.08 | 6.76 | 5.52 (0.57) | 4.00 | 6.88 | 5.61 (0.53) |
Negative affectivity | 2.11 | 6.30 | 4.48 (0.72) | 2.22 | 6.30 | 4.53 (0.72) | 2.11 | 6.22 | 4.46 (0.72) |
3–4 Years | 5–6 Years | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Direct Care | Indirect Care | Teaching/ Discipline | Play | Outdoor Leisure | Direct Care | Indirect Care | Teaching/ Discipline | Play | Outdoor Leisure | |
β | β | β | β | β | β | β | β | β | β | |
Father’s education | 0.22 * | 0.46 ** | 0.18 | 0.07 | 0.24 * | 0.16 * | 0.23 ** | 0.08 | 0.22 ** | 0.12 |
Father’s working hours | −0.14 | −0.12 | −0.04 | −0.03 | −0.03 | −0.16 ** | −0.08 | −0.08 | −0.04 | −0.15 * |
Child’s sex (1 = Feminine) | −0.05 | 0.04 | −0.10 | −0.08 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.07 | −0.09 | 0.02 | 0.04 |
Child’s age | −0.10 | −0.19 * | −0.14 | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.02 | 0.05 | −0.10 | −0.01 | −0.07 |
Extroversion | 0.07 | 0.17 | −0.14 | −0.08 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.04 | −0.10 | 0.07 | 0.09 |
Effortful control | −0.12 | 0.03 | −0.07 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 0.04 | −0.03 | −0.01 | 0.12 | 0.03 |
Negative affectivity | −0.05 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.04 | −0.11 | −0.02 | 0.27 ** | 0.20 * | −0.05 |
Extroversion × Sex | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.32 * | 0.35 * | −0.19 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.05 | −0.03 | 0.03 |
Effortful control × Sex | 0.27 * | 0.06 | −0.00 | −0.03 | −0.10 | −0.09 | −0.07 | 0.05 | −0.14 | −0.01 |
Negative affectivity × Sex | 0.20 | 0.05 | −0.12 | −0.13 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.01 | −0.20 * | −0.08 | −0.04 |
0.13 | 0.29 ** | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.06 * | 0.06 * | 0.07 * | 0.06 | |
0.05 | 0.23 ** | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.03 * | 0.03 * | 0.04 * | 0.02 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Santos, C.; Monteiro, L.; Torres, N. The Role of Child’s Age, Sex, and Temperament in Father Involvement during the Pre-School Years. Children 2022, 9, 1327. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/children9091327
Santos C, Monteiro L, Torres N. The Role of Child’s Age, Sex, and Temperament in Father Involvement during the Pre-School Years. Children. 2022; 9(9):1327. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/children9091327
Chicago/Turabian StyleSantos, Carolina, Lígia Monteiro, and Nuno Torres. 2022. "The Role of Child’s Age, Sex, and Temperament in Father Involvement during the Pre-School Years" Children 9, no. 9: 1327. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/children9091327