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Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice

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A special issue of Arts (ISSN 2076-0752). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Arts".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2021) | Viewed by 45986

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Prof. Dr. Jadwiga Urbanik

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Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
Interests: history of architecture and urban planning of the 20th century (modernism, Modern Movement: architectural form, color, construction and technologies); conservation and revalorization of Modern Movement buildings in architectural practice; history of town planning from ancient times to today

Prof. Dr. Agnieszka Tomaszewicz

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Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
Interests: history of architecture of the 19th century; relationships between architecture and politics in the 1940s and 1950s in Poland and other countries of the former Eastern Bloc; revitalization of historical buildings and cities; history of town planning from ancient times to today

Prof. Dr. Małgorzata Chorowska

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Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
Interests: medieval castles, palaces and houses; history of architecture of the 12–18th century; conservation and revalorization in architectural practice

Prof. Dr. Vladimir Slapeta

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Faculty of Architecture, Brno University of Technology, 601 90 Brno, Czech Republic
Interests: history of architecture and urban planning of the 20th century (modernism, functionalism, cubism, Modern Movement, etc.) in Czechoslovakia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Europe, and all over the World

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Color has been an inseparable feature of architecture for centuries. It depends on technological possibilities, fashion, style, and the preferences of the architect and investor. In different epochs, colors were given different and special meanings. There have been times of contempt for color, and times "calling for color". The psychological basis of the use of colors, and their influence on humans, were also important. Color could, therefore, perform a propaganda function, which is most easily perceived when analyzing “regime architecture”. This knowledge helps us understand an architectural work and its creator, as well as the times in which it was designed. There is no doubt that color enriches architecture, brings out depth and adds light to it. At the beginning of the 20th century, marked by Sir Arthur Evans' reconstruction activity in Knossos, the triumphant return of color was met with distrust and criticism from both conservators and less aware recipients of architectural works. Our fears and fascinations are characterized by an ambivalence that is difficult to explain. On the one hand, there is a growing awareness of the ubiquity of color in ancient architecture, from antiquity to late modernity, as well as an increase in the current research and the analytical and stratigraphic possibilities, which are extremely helpful in discovering the past. On the other hand, there is the fear of color, which is now perceived as out of date and unfashionable in the world of minimalism and transparency. Today, we are faced with serious decisions related to the restoration, conservation and revalorization requirements of architecture. Unfortunately, original color has turned out to be an often elusive feature of buildings that disappears over many years, or even centuries, of use. Knowledge about it is necessary in order to take appropriate actions related to the protection of created architecture, both in the distant past and in the 20th century. In the proposed Special Issue of "Arts", we are seeking articles that will reveal the richness of colors in architecture over the centuries, and show the possibilities of using the latest knowledge in a non-invasive way, in line with the contemporary conservation doctrine and respect for authenticity. We would be grateful for articles that not only discuss the results of research conducted in historical buildings, but also theories about colors in architecture and their application in practice.

Prof. Dr. Jadwiga Urbanik
Prof. Dr. Agnieszka Tomaszewicz
Prof. Dr. Małgorzata Chorowska
Prof. Dr. Vladimir Slapeta
Guest Editors

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Keywords

color
architecture of: antiquity, middle ages, modernity, 19th century, 20th century, modernism, contemporary
stratigraphic research, heritage, reconstructions

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

31 pages, 10246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Color in Medieval Castle Architecture in Present-Day Poland and Czech Republic

by Dagmara Adamska, Przemysław Nocuń, Tomasz Ratajczak and František Záruba

Arts 2022, 11(1), 28; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts11010028 - 07 Feb 2022

Viewed by 5518

Abstract

Colors were ubiquitous in the medieval world, and castles were no exception. While in the eyes of most people their rich color schemes manifested power and wealth, some could also read the more nuanced messages these colors conveyed. The main objective of this paper is to discuss the use and role of color in the interiors of castles of medieval Bohemia and Poland. The picture is complemented by the analysis of color decorations of defensive residences of the Teutonic Order. The discussion takes into account the varying states of preservation and draws from the available written accounts. To present the most complete picture possible, we discuss royal residences, for which unfortunately limited data are available, as well as the better-preserved castles of dukes and knights. We discuss the identified iconographic programs and their chivalric, heraldic, and hagiographic motifs. Within the scope of our discussion are late forms of floral decorations, known as “green chambers”. The numerous examples presented in the paper prove that color was an important tool of visual social communication in castle architecture: it complemented the symbolism, and sometimes carried an independent message. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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23 pages, 19471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Color of Tenement Houses Built in the 19th and Early 20th Centuries in Wroclaw (Poland)—Research, Restoration and Conservation

by Przemyslaw Nowakowski

Arts 2022, 11(1), 27; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts11010027 - 07 Feb 2022

Viewed by 5862

Abstract

The article presents an analysis of the color evolution of tenement houses in Wroclaw in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Their various colors, confirmed by research, prove the term “Colorful Wroclaw”, appearing in the 1930s the architectural journals. The considerations were supported, i.e., by iconographic material presenting the varied colors of renovated tenement houses in Wroclaw. The aim of this analysis is to show the role of scientific and conservation research in restoring the historical value of buildings. Examples of tenement house restoration projects show the practical application of scientific research to formulate conservation guidelines and organize renovation work. Renovation work also requires traditional and increasingly modern construction techniques. These historical buildings belong to the country’s cultural heritage. They are usually entered into the Monuments Register and are subject to conservation protection. Restoring their former appearance and character is possible thanks to the participation of national and international institutions. It deals with supporting the flow of knowledge and financial resources. The following research methods were used: archival and literature studies, analytical studies of selected conservation techniques and stratigraphic studies of paint coatings, and case studies when discussing renovation projects for selected tenement houses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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37 pages, 24454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sgraffito as a Method of Wall Decoration in the Renaissance and Mannerist Silesia

by Marzanna Jagiełło

Arts 2022, 11(1), 25; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts11010025 - 03 Feb 2022

Viewed by 4238

Abstract

During the Renaissance and Mannerist periods, in most European countries the fashion for decorating walls with sgraffiti covered a large part of continent, from Portugal to Romania, and from Central Italy to the German countries and Poland. Its popularity in the middle part of Europe peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries. In many regions, sgraffito was the dominant method of decorating buildings. Sgraffito styles were differentiated by design, artistic level, local conditions and investor preferences. In many regions north of the Alps, sgraffito decorations were, on the one hand, a frequently used method of modernizing medieval buildings, and, on the other, a form of expressing views, often religious ones. Everywhere, however, they expressed supranational belonging to the world of a post-medieval, revival community. It was no different in Silesia, where the sgraffiti madness arrived, thanks to artists who came from the northern regions of Italy around 1540 and settled down until the middle of the next century. The research carried out by the author has proven that, for Silesia, sgraffito was an iconic sign of the architecture of that period. In this region, then belonging to the Habsburg Monarchy, sgraffito decorations covered a wide variety of architectural objects, from barns, walls, and gates to tenement houses, manors, castles, and churches. In the case of the latter, research has shown that temples in Gothic style are heavily decorated with sgraffiti, which should be considered a distinctive feature when compared to other regions. At the same time, it was found that the vast majority of them appeared in forms and themes known to us from other countries covered by the sgraffito fashion. The frame composition made in this technique and, most probably modeled directly on the template by S. Serlia (Tutte L’opere d’Architettura et Prospettiva) from 1619, should be considered as the Silesian contribution to the sgraffito heritage as well as oval bossages. While studying Silesian sgraffito, some local technological differences were also noticed. With the advent of the Baroque period, a large part of the sgraffito decoration was covered (and thus preserved) with a new, baroque decorative costume. We still discover them in the present while carrying out conservation works (sometimes multiple) on historic buildings. Many others, those constantly on display, have been restored to preserve their original shape, or have been reconstructed. Various and simultaneously modernized methods are used to implement these works. Their correct selection depends on in-depth knowledge of sgraffito (historical, artistic, technological and technical) and their regional specificity. It also depends on the constant exchange of experiences between all those dealing with sgraffito heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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21 pages, 7429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Form, New Material and Color Scheme, the Exposed Concrete Phenomenon—The Centennial Hall in Wrocław

by Jerzy Ilkosz, Ryszard Wójtowicz and Jadwiga Urbanik

Arts 2022, 11(1), 17; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts11010017 - 12 Jan 2022

Viewed by 3266

Abstract

The aim of the article is to present the remarkable changes in architecture that took place in the 20th century. They can easily be called a revolution regarding the architectural form and the color scheme. Progress was being made through the development of reinforced concrete production methods. In the German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich), this material quickly found applications in more and more interesting solutions in architectural structures. In Wrocław (formerly Breslau), then located in the eastern German Empire, exceptional architectural works were realized before and after the First World War using new technology. In 1913, an unusual building was erected—the Centennial Hall, designed by Max Berg (inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2006). Berg’s work was inspired by the works of both Hans Poelzig and Bruno Taut. On the one hand, it was a delight with the new material (the Upper Silesian Tower at the exhibition in Poznań, designed by H. Poelzig) and, on the other hand, with the colorful architecture of light and glass by B. Taut (a glass pavilion at the Werkbund exhibition in Cologne). Max Berg left the concrete in an almost “pure” form, not hiding the texture of the formwork under the plaster layer. However, stratigraphic studies of paint coatings and archival inquiries reveal a new face of this building. The research was carried out as part of the CMP (Conservation Management Plan—prepared by the authors of the article, among others) grant from The Getty Foundation Keeping It Modern program. According to the source materials, the architect intended to leave the exposed concrete outside of the building, while the interior was to be decorated with painting, stained glass, and sculpture. The stratigraphic tests showed that the external walls were covered with a translucent yellowish color coating. Thus, the Centennial Hall shows a different face of reinforced concrete architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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28 pages, 12342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Colour and Light in Berlin and Wrocław (Breslau) Department Stores Built between 1927 and 1930

by Krystyna Kirschke and Paweł Kirschke

Arts 2022, 11(1), 12; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts11010012 - 05 Jan 2022

Viewed by 4426

Abstract

This paper presents the theoretical assumptions and design praxis concerning colour schemes used in the multi-threaded Moderne, Streamline Moderne and Art Deco styles, which were used in Germany during the interwar period to design commercial facilities. We based our analysis on selected cases of department stores built in the years 1927–1930 in Berlin and Wrocław (Breslau at the time). Streamline Moderne and Art Deco, which was present in Germany alongside Expressionism, operated using a simple spatial structure that followed the precepts formulated by the Bauhaus: it featured rhythmically divided, disciplined facades clad in ceramics, sandstone or travertine, as well as large storefront windows with brass frames. These Modernist compositions were enriched with ceramic or brass cornices and friezes, overhangs and full-figure sculptures that were often gilded. The buildings’ interiors, designed following the principles of efficiency and functionality, had spatially accentuated and colour-marked entrance zones and grand, glazed courtyards that were given an expressive décor via ceramics, stone or exotic wood. The expression of these compositions was underscored by linear illumination and cascade-like chandeliers that formed light sculptures. In our paper, we also presented problems associated with the contemporary revitalisation and reconstruction of such buildings. We specifically focused on research findings that identified original ceramics production technologies and methods that allowed the recreation of the texture and colour of the facade of the A. Wertheim department store in Wrocław. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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40 pages, 10470 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution in Approach to Colour in Tall Buildings’ Architecture on the Isle of Dogs, London, UK

by Agnieszka Zimnicka, Ewa Balanicka and Aleksandra Kroll

Arts 2022, 11(1), 9; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts11010009 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4021

Abstract

Architects’ approach towards colour in architectural design evolved radically in the recent 50 years, and ranges from a modernist aversion to a vernacular appreciation. These changes were linked to the development of culture, technology and scientific knowledge in different areas connected to human functioning. The authors have examined evolution in design of tall buildings in the Isle of Dogs in London (UK) since the 1980s. The area experienced major growth spurs in the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, resulting in the greatest concentration of tall buildings in London today. The Island has been a playground for architects who have developed a range of approaches to the design of towers. The authors observed the evolution of architectural style, analyzed application of colour and made connections between scale, beauty and human behaviour. They concluded that colour in tall buildings’ architecture on the Isle of Dogs is predominantly used to disguise their massing. Colour detail facilitates the domestic feel of a public realm. Therefore, alongside decorative quality, and if considerately applied, colour may positively influence the quality of living and working environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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21 pages, 11754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Marina el-Alamein as an Example of Painting Decoration of Main Spaces of Hellenistic-Roman Houses in Egypt

by Grażyna Bąkowska-Czerner and Rafał Czerner

Arts 2022, 11(1), 2; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts11010002 - 21 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3328

Abstract

The article is based on the research conducted by the authors. The houses from the ancient town discovered in 1985 on the Mediterranean coast at the location of today’s Marina el-Alamein, are among the rare remains of Egyptian residential buildings from Hellenistic and Roman times. There are few remains of houses from this period in major cities, including the capital of Alexandria. The ancient town, which functioned under the influence of nearby Alexandria, developed from the second century BC to the sixth century AD. Various types of buildings, relatively well preserved here, provide information on a reduced scale about the architecture of Alexandria, as well as the lives of its inhabitants. This also applies in particular to residential houses, their décor and colours. The ancient town of Marina el-Alamein can be seen as demonstrating solutions that are more common. The present article aims to analyse the preserved remains of painting decoration in the main spaces of houses and attempts to reconstruct forms and the principles of their creation on the background of better-known solutions from other regions. Houses in Marina generally implemented layouts defined by flagstone-paved portico courtyards, sporadically taking the form of an incomplete peristyle, and reception halls oikos, which could be accompanied by smaller adjoining rooms. Both the columns and entablature with the cornices of the porticoes as well as the walls of the main rooms were painted. Wall decoration was organised by geometric partitions, filled in variously. The aedicula that served religious purposes, placed centrally in the rear walls of the main reception rooms, was also polychrome. The painted decoration can be reconstructed from the preserved remains, as rich and intensely colourful, similar to Hellenistic and Roman layouts from other regions, but differing in details. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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26 pages, 48653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Color in Selected Artistic Glass Compositions by Tomasz Urbanowicz as an Element of Intervention in Historic Buildings and Contemporary Architecture

by Barbara Ewa Gronostajska and Konrad Urbanowicz

Arts 2021, 10(4), 79; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts10040079 - 26 Nov 2021

Viewed by 3275

Abstract

Colored glass in the form of stained-glass windows has been used to decorate buildings for over a thousand years. Due to various late-twentieth-century technological achievements, this material allows for a broad spectrum of design solutions. Glass can be used both in contemporary and historical buildings. This paper presents an analysis of the work of Tomasz Urbanowicz, an artist who works with glass, and its objective is to present not only the body of work of this artist but also the means of using colored glass in creating new values in architecture. The work is based on a study of the literature that covers the contemporary application of colored glass, on-site analysis of projects, and a series of interviews with the artist before, during, and after project completion, as well as the authors’ personal experience in the matter. One of the main research methods used was an analysis of the artist’s stance, as to him, the very process of pursuing creative inspiration is a fundamental procedure. Glassworks by Urbanowicz were displayed at the EXPO 2000 in Hanover (Germany), the EXPO 2005 in Aichi (Japan), and the EXPO 2008 in Saragossa (Spain). The United Earth glass sphere has been decorating the agora of the European Parliament building in Strasbourg (France) since 2004. In the paper, the artist’s projects are presented in two groups: The first includes solutions that employ monochromatic color schemes, whereas in the second, color has been used to create a strong contrast. The analysis presented includes interventions in historical buildings under heritage conservation, but also compositions from architectural glass in newly built buildings and that reference place-based history. Both the initial vision and the final effect of the glass architectural compositions are site-specific. The analysis of these differences and how the artist works allowed us to formulate a scheme of how he operates. Urbanowicz’s glass interventions affect the quality of the spaces they create and highlight their existing or expected features. The influence of the works can either play a primary and dominant role in relation with the surrounding space or be a secondary and delicate addition. Applied color may have different functions, from highlighting specific aspects of a building to introducing symbolic or direct reference. In many projects, color works as a source of a building interior’s atmosphere. The artistic interventions in historic spaces emphasize their features without disrupting pre-existing authenticity, whereas contemporary projects with no historic reference offer a wide variety of color applications that focus on the function and form of architecture, landscape, or surroundings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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25 pages, 10658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Colors of the Ineffable—Jerzy Nowosielski’s Monumental Works as a Contemporary Search for Sacred Space

by Wojciech Stanisław Januszewski

Arts 2021, 10(4), 68; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts10040068 - 26 Sep 2021

Viewed by 4708

Abstract

The subject of this work is the monumental art of Jerzy Nowosielski (1923–2011), one of the most outstanding contemporary Polish painters, who combined modernity with the orthodox icon aesthetics. This work discusses the monumental realizations of Nowosielski, especially the architectural polychromes made by the artist in Catholic and Orthodox churches in Poland in the years 1950–1999. The aim of the inquiry is to present his work theoretically and place it in a broader artistic context. The research shows that Nowosielski’s monumental works results from a strongly defined artistic concept aimed at ‘mystagogy of space’. Nowosielski’s work is an original synthesis of the modernist avant-garde and traditional canons of religious art. The analysis of the problem was carried out in two areas: (1) analysis of the artist’s theoretical statements; (2) analysis of the artistic form with particular emphasis on the color aspect, based on the example of selected churches in Wesoła, Tychy, and Biały Bór. The work uses comparative references to the ideas of Wassily Kandinsky, Kazimir Malevich, Piet Mondrian, and Le Corbusier. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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44 pages, 475598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Colors Inspired by Nature Analyzed in Two Residential Buildings Designed by Victor Horta

by Barbara Widera

Arts 2021, 10(3), 60; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/arts10030060 - 31 Aug 2021

Viewed by 3517

Abstract

The aim of the article is to present the results of research on colors carried out in two residential buildings in Brussels, designed by Victor Horta: The Tassel House (1893–1894) and The Horta House (1898–1901), representing the Art Nouveau style for which the main source of inspiration was nature. The purpose of the research was to check whether the selection of colors in the buildings was also inspired by nature. The investigation applied methods of archive studies, literature review, field survey and comparative analysis of 251 color samples taken in the interiors and façades of the two houses, compared to the 307 color samples collected in the natural environment within the radius of 700 m from the two locations. The samples were described using the Natural Colour System^® chart. The research results revealed that the value of the color-matching indicator for the comparison of the color samples collected in the two examined buildings and the samples of predominant colors observed in the natural environment was determined at the average level of 92.5%. The conclusions from the study confirmed the significance of drawing inspiration from nature in the field of colors selection in the two analyzed buildings designed by Victor Horta. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)

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