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Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging
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Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging

A special issue of Biology (ISSN 2079-7737).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2018) | Viewed by 198459

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Richard H. Haas

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Guest Editor
Department of Neurosciences, UC San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mitochondria have been increasing recognized as important players in the aging process. Most aging related diseases and particularly neurodegenerative diseases have mitochondrial involvement. A PubMed search for mitochondria and aging lists 348 articles in the first seven months of 2018. This is not surprising as mitochondria are involved not only in energy production through oxidative phosphorylation but also play an important role in intracellular homeostasis, calcium balance and the metabolism and interconversion of our dietary substrates; fats, proteins and carbohydrates in the fed and fasting states. They have an important role in signaling their metabolic state to the nucleus, and to other cells and in the response to stress. Mitochondria have their own protein synthetic apparatus and replicate themselves, pathways readily disrupted in disease and aging. They are constantly involved in fusion and fission the balance of which is essential for cell health. These organelles participate in apoptosis, they make most of the cell’s free radicals and they are crucially important for innate immunity. Mitochondrial DNA has an estimated 10-fold greater mutation rate than nuclear DNA and less repair capacity, this plays an important role in aging and cancer. Mitochondria are impacted by environmental factors and toxins and different mtDNA haplogroups originally adapted to geographically different origins make an important background contribution to disease. As mitochondria play a critical metabolic role in all organ systems they are particularly impacted by disease and contribute to the aging process itself. The invited review articles in this special supplement cover most of the common diseases of aging. Enthusiasm for this supplement in Biology is driven by the opportunity to review the current state of knowledge about the role of mitochondria in the aging process. The international group of contributing authors include many of the leaders in their fields.

Prof. Dr. Richard H. Haas
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Mitochondria
  • Human
  • Aging
  • Aging Diseases
  • mtDNA

Published Papers (16 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 169 KiB  
Editorial
Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging
by Richard H. Haas
Biology 2019, 8(2), 48; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020048 - 17 Jun 2019
Cited by 97 | Viewed by 11138
Abstract
Mitochondria have been increasingly recognized as the important players in the aging process [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)

Review

Jump to: Editorial

18 pages, 1335 KiB  
Review
Mitochondria and Aging—The Role of Exercise as a Countermeasure
by Mats I Nilsson and Mark A Tarnopolsky
Biology 2019, 8(2), 40; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020040 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 21768
Abstract
Mitochondria orchestrate the life and death of most eukaryotic cells by virtue of their ability to supply adenosine triphosphate from aerobic respiration for growth, development, and maintenance of the ‘physiologic reserve’. Although their double-membrane structure and primary role as ‘powerhouses of the cell’ [...] Read more.
Mitochondria orchestrate the life and death of most eukaryotic cells by virtue of their ability to supply adenosine triphosphate from aerobic respiration for growth, development, and maintenance of the ‘physiologic reserve’. Although their double-membrane structure and primary role as ‘powerhouses of the cell’ have essentially remained the same for ~2 billion years, they have evolved to regulate other cell functions that contribute to the aging process, such as reactive oxygen species generation, inflammation, senescence, and apoptosis. Biological aging is characterized by buildup of intracellular debris (e.g., oxidative damage, protein aggregates, and lipofuscin), which fuels a ‘vicious cycle’ of cell/DNA danger response activation (CDR and DDR, respectively), chronic inflammation (‘inflammaging’), and progressive cell deterioration. Therapeutic options that coordinately mitigate age-related declines in mitochondria and organelles involved in quality control, repair, and recycling are therefore highly desirable. Rejuvenation by exercise is a non-pharmacological approach that targets all the major hallmarks of aging and extends both health- and lifespan in modern humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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18 pages, 903 KiB  
Review
Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Stress Responses in Alzheimer’s Disease
by Ian Weidling and Russell H. Swerdlow
Biology 2019, 8(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology8020039 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 13911
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients display widespread mitochondrial defects. Brain hypometabolism occurs alongside mitochondrial defects, and correlates well with cognitive decline. Numerous theories attempt to explain AD mitochondrial dysfunction. Groups propose AD mitochondrial defects stem from: (1) mitochondrial-nuclear DNA interactions/variations; (2) amyloid and neurofibrillary [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients display widespread mitochondrial defects. Brain hypometabolism occurs alongside mitochondrial defects, and correlates well with cognitive decline. Numerous theories attempt to explain AD mitochondrial dysfunction. Groups propose AD mitochondrial defects stem from: (1) mitochondrial-nuclear DNA interactions/variations; (2) amyloid and neurofibrillary tangle interactions with mitochondria, and (3) mitochondrial quality control defects and oxidative damage. Cells respond to mitochondrial dysfunction through numerous retrograde responses including the Integrated Stress Response (ISR) involving eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α), activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP). AD brains activate the ISR and we hypothesize mitochondrial defects may contribute to ISR activation. Here we review current recognized contributions of the mitochondria to AD, with an emphasis on their potential contribution to brain stress responses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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Graphical abstract

26 pages, 10469 KiB  
Review
Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Parkinson’s Disease—Cause or Consequence?
by Chun Chen, Doug M. Turnbull and Amy K. Reeve
Biology 2019, 8(2), 38; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020038 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 161 | Viewed by 20859
Abstract
James Parkinson first described the motor symptoms of the disease that took his name over 200 years ago. While our knowledge of many of the changes that occur in this condition has increased, it is still unknown what causes this neurodegeneration and why [...] Read more.
James Parkinson first described the motor symptoms of the disease that took his name over 200 years ago. While our knowledge of many of the changes that occur in this condition has increased, it is still unknown what causes this neurodegeneration and why it only affects some individuals with advancing age. Here we review current literature to discuss whether the mitochondrial dysfunction we have detected in Parkinson’s disease is a pathogenic cause of neuronal loss or whether it is itself a consequence of dysfunction in other pathways. We examine research data from cases of idiopathic Parkinson’s with that from model systems and individuals with familial forms of the disease. Furthermore, we include data from healthy aged individuals to highlight that many of the changes described are also present with advancing age, though not normally in the presence of severe neurodegeneration. While a definitive answer to this question may still be just out of reach, it is clear that mitochondrial dysfunction sits prominently at the centre of the disease pathway that leads to catastrophic neuronal loss in those affected by this disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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17 pages, 1506 KiB  
Review
Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Multiple Sclerosis
by Isabella Peixoto de Barcelos, Regina M. Troxell and Jennifer S. Graves
Biology 2019, 8(2), 37; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020037 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 142 | Viewed by 10419
Abstract
In recent years, several studies have examined the potential associations between mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. In MS, neurological disability results from inflammation, demyelination, and ultimately, axonal damage within the central nervous system. [...] Read more.
In recent years, several studies have examined the potential associations between mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. In MS, neurological disability results from inflammation, demyelination, and ultimately, axonal damage within the central nervous system. The sustained inflammatory phase of the disease leads to ion channel changes and chronic oxidative stress. Several independent investigations have demonstrated mitochondrial respiratory chain deficiency in MS, as well as abnormalities in mitochondrial transport. These processes create an energy imbalance and contribute to a parallel process of progressive neurodegeneration and irreversible disability. The potential roles of mitochondria in neurodegeneration are reviewed. An overview of mitochondrial diseases that may overlap with MS are also discussed, as well as possible therapeutic targets for the treatment of MS and other neurodegenerative conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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14 pages, 648 KiB  
Review
Mitochondrial Transport and Turnover in the Pathogenesis of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
by Veronica Granatiero and Giovanni Manfredi
Biology 2019, 8(2), 36; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020036 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6236
Abstract
Neurons are high-energy consuming cells, heavily dependent on mitochondria for ATP generation and calcium buffering. These mitochondrial functions are particularly critical at specific cellular sites, where ionic currents impose a large energetic burden, such as at synapses. The highly polarized nature of neurons, [...] Read more.
Neurons are high-energy consuming cells, heavily dependent on mitochondria for ATP generation and calcium buffering. These mitochondrial functions are particularly critical at specific cellular sites, where ionic currents impose a large energetic burden, such as at synapses. The highly polarized nature of neurons, with extremely large axoplasm relative to the cell body, requires mitochondria to be efficiently transported along microtubules to reach distant sites. Furthermore, neurons are post-mitotic cells that need to maintain pools of healthy mitochondria throughout their lifespan. Hence, mitochondrial transport and turnover are essential processes for neuronal survival and function. In neurodegenerative diseases, the maintenance of a healthy mitochondrial network is often compromised. Numerous lines of evidence indicate that mitochondrial impairment contributes to neuronal demise in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), where degeneration of motor neurons causes a fatal muscle paralysis. Dysfunctional mitochondria accumulate in motor neurons affected by genetic or sporadic forms of ALS, strongly suggesting that the inability to maintain a healthy pool of mitochondria plays a pathophysiological role in the disease. This article critically reviews current hypotheses on mitochondrial involvement in the pathogenesis of ALS, focusing on the alterations of mitochondrial axonal transport and turnover in motor neurons. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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15 pages, 1249 KiB  
Review
From Powerhouse to Perpetrator—Mitochondria in Health and Disease
by Nima B. Fakouri, Thomas Lau Hansen, Claus Desler, Sharath Anugula and Lene Juel Rasmussen
Biology 2019, 8(2), 35; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020035 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6403
Abstract
In this review we discuss the interaction between metabolic stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and genomic instability. Unrepaired DNA damage in the nucleus resulting from excess accumulation of DNA damages and stalled replication can initiate cellular signaling responses that negatively affect metabolism and mitochondrial function. [...] Read more.
In this review we discuss the interaction between metabolic stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and genomic instability. Unrepaired DNA damage in the nucleus resulting from excess accumulation of DNA damages and stalled replication can initiate cellular signaling responses that negatively affect metabolism and mitochondrial function. On the other hand, mitochondrial pathologies can also lead to stress in the nucleus, and cause sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents. These are examples of how hallmarks of cancer and aging are connected and influenced by each other to protect humans from disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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27 pages, 470 KiB  
Review
Cardiovascular Manifestations of Mitochondrial Disease
by Jason Duran, Armando Martinez and Eric Adler
Biology 2019, 8(2), 34; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020034 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5675
Abstract
Genetic mitochondrial cardiomyopathies are uncommon causes of heart failure that may not be seen by most physicians. However, the prevalence of mitochondrial DNA mutations and somatic mutations affecting mitochondrial function are more common than previously thought. In this review, the pathogenesis of genetic [...] Read more.
Genetic mitochondrial cardiomyopathies are uncommon causes of heart failure that may not be seen by most physicians. However, the prevalence of mitochondrial DNA mutations and somatic mutations affecting mitochondrial function are more common than previously thought. In this review, the pathogenesis of genetic mitochondrial disorders causing cardiovascular disease is reviewed. Treatment options are presently limited to mostly symptomatic support, but preclinical research is starting to reveal novel approaches that may lead to better and more targeted therapies in the future. With better understanding and clinician education, we hope to improve clinician recognition and diagnosis of these rare disorders in order to improve ongoing care of patients with these diseases and advance research towards discovering new therapeutic strategies to help treat these diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
17 pages, 881 KiB  
Review
Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Diabetes: Is Mitochondrial Transfer a Friend or Foe?
by Magdalene K Montgomery
Biology 2019, 8(2), 33; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020033 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 9354
Abstract
Obesity, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes are accompanied by a variety of systemic and tissue-specific metabolic defects, including inflammation, oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, lipotoxicity, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Over the past 30 years, association studies and genetic manipulations, as well as lifestyle [...] Read more.
Obesity, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes are accompanied by a variety of systemic and tissue-specific metabolic defects, including inflammation, oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, lipotoxicity, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Over the past 30 years, association studies and genetic manipulations, as well as lifestyle and pharmacological invention studies, have reported contrasting findings on the presence or physiological importance of mitochondrial dysfunction in the context of obesity and insulin resistance. It is still unclear if targeting mitochondrial function is a feasible therapeutic approach for the treatment of insulin resistance and glucose homeostasis. Interestingly, recent studies suggest that intact mitochondria, mitochondrial DNA, or other mitochondrial factors (proteins, lipids, miRNA) are found in the circulation, and that metabolic tissues secrete exosomes containing mitochondrial cargo. While this phenomenon has been investigated primarily in the context of cancer and a variety of inflammatory states, little is known about the importance of exosomal mitochondrial transfer in obesity and diabetes. We will discuss recent evidence suggesting that (1) tissues with mitochondrial dysfunction shed their mitochondria within exosomes, and that these exosomes impair the recipient’s cell metabolic status, and that on the other hand, (2) physiologically healthy tissues can shed mitochondria to improve the metabolic status of recipient cells. In this context the determination of whether mitochondrial transfer in obesity and diabetes is a friend or foe requires further studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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14 pages, 681 KiB  
Review
Drug-Induced Mitochondrial Toxicity in the Geriatric Population: Challenges and Future Directions
by Yvonne Will, Jefry E. Shields and Kendall B. Wallace
Biology 2019, 8(2), 32; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020032 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 10777
Abstract
Mitochondrial function declines with age, leading to a variety of age-related diseases (metabolic, central nervous system-related, cancer, etc.) and medication usage increases with age due to the increase in diseases. Drug-induced mitochondrial toxicity has been described for many different drug classes and can [...] Read more.
Mitochondrial function declines with age, leading to a variety of age-related diseases (metabolic, central nervous system-related, cancer, etc.) and medication usage increases with age due to the increase in diseases. Drug-induced mitochondrial toxicity has been described for many different drug classes and can lead to liver, muscle, kidney and central nervous system injury and, in rare cases, to death. Many of the most prescribed medications in the geriatric population carry mitochondrial liabilities. We have demonstrated that, over the past decade, each class of drugs that demonstrated mitochondrial toxicity contained drugs with both more and less adverse effects on mitochondria. As patient treatment is often essential, we suggest using medication(s) with the best safety profile and the avoidance of concurrent usage of multiple medications that carry mitochondrial liabilities. In addition, we also recommend lifestyle changes to further improve one’s mitochondrial function, such as weight loss, exercise and nutrition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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9 pages, 1264 KiB  
Review
Mitochondrial Dysfunction in the Aging Retina
by Janis T. Eells
Biology 2019, 8(2), 31; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020031 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 84 | Viewed by 8628
Abstract
Mitochondria are central in retinal cell function and survival and they perform functions that are critical to cell function. Retinal neurons have high energy requirements, since large amounts of ATP are needed to generate membrane potentials and power membrane pumps. Mitochondria over the [...] Read more.
Mitochondria are central in retinal cell function and survival and they perform functions that are critical to cell function. Retinal neurons have high energy requirements, since large amounts of ATP are needed to generate membrane potentials and power membrane pumps. Mitochondria over the course of aging undergo a number of changes. Aged mitochondria exhibit decreased rates of oxidative phosphorylation, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and increased numbers of mtDNA mutations. Mitochondria in the neural retina and the retinal pigment epithelium are particularly susceptible to oxidative damage with aging. Many age-related retinal diseases, including glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration, have been associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, mitochondria are a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of retinal disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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15 pages, 1080 KiB  
Review
Vitamin D Deficiency: Effects on Oxidative Stress, Epigenetics, Gene Regulation, and Aging
by Sunil J. Wimalawansa
Biology 2019, 8(2), 30; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020030 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 243 | Viewed by 21724
Abstract
Recent advances in vitamin D research indicate that this vitamin, a secosteroid hormone, has beneficial effects on several body systems other than the musculoskeletal system. Both 25 dihydroxy vitamin D [25(OH)2D] and its active hormonal form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D] [...] Read more.
Recent advances in vitamin D research indicate that this vitamin, a secosteroid hormone, has beneficial effects on several body systems other than the musculoskeletal system. Both 25 dihydroxy vitamin D [25(OH)2D] and its active hormonal form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D] are essential for human physiological functions, including damping down inflammation and the excessive intracellular oxidative stresses. Vitamin D is one of the key controllers of systemic inflammation, oxidative stress and mitochondrial respiratory function, and thus, the aging process in humans. In turn, molecular and cellular actions form 1,25(OH)2D slow down oxidative stress, cell and tissue damage, and the aging process. On the other hand, hypovitaminosis D impairs mitochondrial functions, and enhances oxidative stress and systemic inflammation. The interaction of 1,25(OH)2D with its intracellular receptors modulates vitamin D–dependent gene transcription and activation of vitamin D-responsive elements, which triggers multiple second messenger systems. Thus, it is not surprising that hypovitaminosis D increases the incidence and severity of several age-related common diseases, such as metabolic disorders that are linked to oxidative stress. These include obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, pregnancy complications, memory disorders, osteoporosis, autoimmune diseases, certain cancers, and systemic inflammatory diseases. Vitamin D adequacy leads to less oxidative stress and improves mitochondrial and endocrine functions, reducing the risks of disorders, such as autoimmunity, infections, metabolic derangements, and impairment of DNA repair; all of this aids a healthy, graceful aging process. Vitamin D is also a potent anti-oxidant that facilitates balanced mitochondrial activities, preventing oxidative stress-related protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation, and DNA damage. New understandings of vitamin D-related advances in metabolomics, transcriptomics, epigenetics, in relation to its ability to control oxidative stress in conjunction with micronutrients, vitamins, and antioxidants, following normalization of serum 25(OH)D and tissue 1,25(OH)2D concentrations, likely to promise cost-effective better clinical outcomes in humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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12 pages, 530 KiB  
Review
Mitochondria’s Role in Skin Ageing
by Roisin Stout and Mark Birch-Machin
Biology 2019, 8(2), 29; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020029 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 15939
Abstract
Skin ageing is the result of a loss of cellular function, which can be further accelerated by external factors. Mitochondria have important roles in skin function, and mitochondrial damage has been found to accumulate with age in skin cells, but also in response [...] Read more.
Skin ageing is the result of a loss of cellular function, which can be further accelerated by external factors. Mitochondria have important roles in skin function, and mitochondrial damage has been found to accumulate with age in skin cells, but also in response to solar light and pollution. There is increasing evidence that mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are key features in all ageing tissues, including skin. This is directly linked to skin ageing phenotypes: wrinkle formation, hair greying and loss, uneven pigmentation and decreased wound healing. The loss of barrier function during skin ageing increases susceptibility to infection and affects wound healing. Therefore, an understanding of the mechanisms involved is important clinically and also for the development of antiageing skin care products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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22 pages, 1316 KiB  
Review
CoQ10 and Aging
by Isabella Peixoto de Barcelos and Richard H. Haas
Biology 2019, 8(2), 28; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020028 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 78 | Viewed by 12643
Abstract
The aging process includes impairment in mitochondrial function, a reduction in anti-oxidant activity, and an increase in oxidative stress, marked by an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Oxidative damage to macromolecules including DNA and electron transport proteins likely increases ROS production [...] Read more.
The aging process includes impairment in mitochondrial function, a reduction in anti-oxidant activity, and an increase in oxidative stress, marked by an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Oxidative damage to macromolecules including DNA and electron transport proteins likely increases ROS production resulting in further damage. This oxidative theory of cell aging is supported by the fact that diseases associated with the aging process are marked by increased oxidative stress. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) levels fall with aging in the human but this is not seen in all species or all tissues. It is unknown whether lower CoQ10 levels have a part to play in aging and disease or whether it is an inconsequential cellular response to aging. Despite the current lay public interest in supplementing with CoQ10, there is currently not enough evidence to recommend CoQ10 supplementation as an anti-aging anti-oxidant therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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18 pages, 2228 KiB  
Review
Incomplete Healing as a Cause of Aging: The Role of Mitochondria and the Cell Danger Response
by Robert K. Naviaux
Biology 2019, 8(2), 27; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020027 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 12806
Abstract
The rate of biological aging varies cyclically and episodically in response to changing environmental conditions and the developmentally-controlled biological systems that sense and respond to those changes. Mitochondria and metabolism are fundamental regulators, and the cell is the fundamental unit of aging. However, [...] Read more.
The rate of biological aging varies cyclically and episodically in response to changing environmental conditions and the developmentally-controlled biological systems that sense and respond to those changes. Mitochondria and metabolism are fundamental regulators, and the cell is the fundamental unit of aging. However, aging occurs at all anatomical levels. At levels above the cell, aging in different tissues is qualitatively, quantitatively, and chronologically distinct. For example, the heart can age faster and differently than the kidney and vice versa. Two multicellular features of aging that are universal are: (1) a decrease in physiologic reserve capacity, and (2) a decline in the functional communication between cells and organ systems, leading to death. Decreases in reserve capacity and communication impose kinetic limits on the rate of healing after new injuries, resulting in dyssynchronous and incomplete healing. Exercise mitigates against these losses, but recovery times continue to increase with age. Reinjury before complete healing results in the stacking of incomplete cycles of healing. Developmentally delayed and arrested cells accumulate in the three stages of the cell danger response (CDR1, 2, and 3) that make up the healing cycle. Cells stuck in the CDR create physical and metabolic separation—buffer zones of reduced communication—between previously adjoining, synergistic, and metabolically interdependent cells. Mis-repairs and senescent cells accumulate, and repeated iterations of incomplete cycles of healing lead to progressively dysfunctional cellular mosaics in aging tissues. Metabolic cross-talk between mitochondria and the nucleus, and between neighboring and distant cells via signaling molecules called metabokines regulates the completeness of healing. Purinergic signaling and sphingolipids play key roles in this process. When viewed against the backdrop of the molecular features of the healing cycle, the incomplete healing model provides a new framework for understanding the hallmarks of aging and generates a number of testable hypotheses for new treatments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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10 pages, 1190 KiB  
Review
Mitochondrial Dysfunction and the Aging Immune System
by Peter J. McGuire
Biology 2019, 8(2), 26; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biology8020026 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 67 | Viewed by 8304
Abstract
Mitochondria are ancient organelles that have co-evolved with their cellular hosts, developing a mutually beneficial arrangement. In addition to making energy, mitochondria are multifaceted, being involved in heat production, calcium storage, apoptosis, cell signaling, biosynthesis, and aging. Many of these mitochondrial functions decline [...] Read more.
Mitochondria are ancient organelles that have co-evolved with their cellular hosts, developing a mutually beneficial arrangement. In addition to making energy, mitochondria are multifaceted, being involved in heat production, calcium storage, apoptosis, cell signaling, biosynthesis, and aging. Many of these mitochondrial functions decline with age, and are the basis for many diseases of aging. Despite the vast amount of research dedicated to this subject, the relationship between aging mitochondria and immune function is largely absent from the literature. In this review, three main issues facing the aging immune system are discussed: (1) inflamm-aging; (2) susceptibility to infection and (3) declining T-cell function. These issues are re-evaluated using the lens of mitochondrial dysfunction with aging. With the recent expansion of numerous profiling technologies, there has been a resurgence of interest in the role of metabolism in immunity, with mitochondria taking center stage. Building upon this recent accumulation of knowledge in immunometabolism, this review will advance the hypothesis that the decline in immunity and associated pathologies are partially related to the natural progression of mitochondrial dysfunction with aging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Aging and Diseases of Aging)
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