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Open AccessEntry

Migration Forecasting—Significance and Approaches

by

Johann Fuchs

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Doris Söhnlein

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Patrizio Vanella

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 689-709; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030054 (registering DOI) - 02 Aug 2021

Definition

Migration is defined as the permanent change in an individual’s usual residence. Forecasting migration is an important requisite for population forecasts or for planning in fields that depend on the future size and structure of the population, such as economics, epidemiology, social insurance, [...] Read more.

Migration is defined as the permanent change in an individual’s usual residence. Forecasting migration is an important requisite for population forecasts or for planning in fields that depend on the future size and structure of the population, such as economics, epidemiology, social insurance, or infrastructure. As migration is the most volatile of all demographic components, its modeling is especially difficult. International migration can be modeled and forecast very differently; users should be familiar with the flaws and strengths of these different approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)

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Open AccessEntry

High-Speed Railway

by

Inara Watson

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 665-688; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030053 - 27 Jul 2021

Definition

Union Internationale des Chemins (UIC) defines the high-speed railway (HSR) as a high-speed railway system that contains the infrastructure and the rolling stock. The infrastructure can be newly built dedicated lines enabled for trains to travel with speed above 250 km/h or upgraded [...] Read more.

Union Internationale des Chemins (UIC) defines the high-speed railway (HSR) as a high-speed railway system that contains the infrastructure and the rolling stock. The infrastructure can be newly built dedicated lines enabled for trains to travel with speed above 250 km/h or upgraded conventional lines with a speed up to 200 or even 220 km/h. HSR requires specially built trains with increased power to weight ratio and must have an in-cab signalling system as traditional signalling systems are incapable of above 200 km/h. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Engineering)

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Novel Bioactive Extraction and Nano-Encapsulation

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Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 632-664; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030052 - 26 Jul 2021

Definition

An extraction technology works on the principle of two consecutive steps that involves mixture of solute with solvent and the movement of soluble compounds from the cell into the solvent and its consequent diffusion and extraction. The conventional extraction techniques are mostly based [...] Read more.

An extraction technology works on the principle of two consecutive steps that involves mixture of solute with solvent and the movement of soluble compounds from the cell into the solvent and its consequent diffusion and extraction. The conventional extraction techniques are mostly based on the use of mild/high temperatures (50–90 °C) that can cause thermal degradation, are dependent on the mass transfer rate, being reflected on long extraction times, high costs, low extraction efficiency, with consequent low extraction yields. Due to these disadvantages, it is of interest to develop non-thermal extraction methods, such as microwave, ultrasounds, supercritical fluids (mostly using carbon dioxide, SC-CO₂), and high hydrostatic pressure-assisted extractions which works on the phenomena of minimum heat exposure with reduced processing time, thereby minimizing the loss of bioactive compounds during extraction. Further, to improve the stability of these extracted compounds, nano-encapsulation is required. Nano-encapsulation is a process which forms a thin layer of protection against environmental degradation and retains the nutritional and functional qualities of bioactive compounds in nano-scale level capsules by employing fats, starches, dextrins, alginates, protein and lipid materials as encapsulation materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Engineering)

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Challenges for Nanotechnology

by

Johann Michael Köhler

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 618-631; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030051 - 25 Jul 2021

Definition

The term “Nanotechnology” describes a large field of scientific and technical activities dealing with objects and technical components with small dimensions. Typically, bodies that are in–at least–two dimensions smaller than 0.1 µm are regarded as “nanobjects”. By this definition, a lot of advanced [...] Read more.

The term “Nanotechnology” describes a large field of scientific and technical activities dealing with objects and technical components with small dimensions. Typically, bodies that are in–at least–two dimensions smaller than 0.1 µm are regarded as “nanobjects”. By this definition, a lot of advanced materials, as well as the advanced electronic devices, are objects of nanotechnology. In addition, many aspects of molecular biotechnology as well as macromolecular and supermolecular chemistry and nanoparticle techniques are summarized under “nanotechnology”. Despite this size-oriented definition, nanotechnology is dealing with physics and chemistry as well as with the realization of technical functions in the area between very small bodies and single particles and molecules. This includes the shift from classical physics into the quantum world of small molecules and low numbers or single elementary particles. Besides the already established fields of nanotechnology, there is a big expectation about technical progress and solution to essential economic, medical, and ecological problems by means of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology can only meet these expectations if fundamental progress behind the recent state of the art can be achieved. Therefore, very important challenges for nanotechnology are discussed here. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Engineering)

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Information Security Risk Assessment

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Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 602-617; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030050 - 24 Jul 2021

Definition

Information security risk assessment is an important part of enterprises’ management practices that helps to identify, quantify, and prioritize risks against criteria for risk acceptance and objectives relevant to the organization. Risk management refers to a process that consists of identification, management, and [...] Read more.

Information security risk assessment is an important part of enterprises’ management practices that helps to identify, quantify, and prioritize risks against criteria for risk acceptance and objectives relevant to the organization. Risk management refers to a process that consists of identification, management, and elimination or reduction of the likelihood of events that can negatively affect the resources of the information system to reduce security risks that potentially have the ability to affect the information system, subject to an acceptable cost of protection means that contain a risk analysis, analysis of the “cost-effectiveness” parameter, and selection, construction, and testing of the security subsystem, as well as the study of all aspects of security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mathematics & Computer Science)

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Open AccessEntry

Social Housing Customization in Brazil

by

Luisa Felix Dalla Vecchia

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Nirce Saffer Medvedovski

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 589-601; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030049 - 21 Jul 2021

Definition

Social housing customization in Brazil refers to the current processes of development and evolution of government-funded neighborhoods for the lowest-income population. The mass production of small housing units that do not satisfy family needs instigates a self-design and self-construction process post-occupancy to customize [...] Read more.

Social housing customization in Brazil refers to the current processes of development and evolution of government-funded neighborhoods for the lowest-income population. The mass production of small housing units that do not satisfy family needs instigates a self-design and self-construction process post-occupancy to customize the units. Ultimately, these changes to the units bring unintended negative consequences for the families and the city. In this context, mass customization is seen as an alternative to address some of the problems related to unit design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of ZEMCH Research and Development)

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Open AccessEntry

Machine Learning for Additive Manufacturing

by

Dean Grierson

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Allan E. W. Rennie

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Stephen D. Quayle

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 576-588; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030048 - 19 Jul 2021

Definition

Additive manufacturing (AM) is the name given to a family of manufacturing processes where materials are joined to make parts from 3D modelling data, generally in a layer-upon-layer manner. AM is rapidly increasing in industrial adoption for the manufacture of end-use parts, which [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) is the name given to a family of manufacturing processes where materials are joined to make parts from 3D modelling data, generally in a layer-upon-layer manner. AM is rapidly increasing in industrial adoption for the manufacture of end-use parts, which is therefore pushing for the maturation of design, process, and production techniques. Machine learning (ML) is a branch of artificial intelligence concerned with training programs to self-improve and has applications in a wide range of areas, such as computer vision, prediction, and information retrieval. Many of the problems facing AM can be categorised into one or more of these application areas. Studies have shown ML techniques to be effective in improving AM design, process, and production but there are limited industrial case studies to support further development of these techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Engineering)

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Frederick III of Aragon (1296–1337)

by

Mirko Vagnoni

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 566-575; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030047 - 14 Jul 2021

Definition

Frederick III of Aragon, King of Sicily (1296–1337). Frederick III of Aragon was the third king of the Aragonese dynasty on the throne of Sicily. He ruled from 1296 to 1337 and he was the only Aragonese king of Sicily who made a [...] Read more.

Frederick III of Aragon, King of Sicily (1296–1337). Frederick III of Aragon was the third king of the Aragonese dynasty on the throne of Sicily. He ruled from 1296 to 1337 and he was the only Aragonese king of Sicily who made a significant use of his image. In particular, we have four official (namely, commissioned directly by him or his entourage) representations of him: the royal seal, the billon silver denaro coin, the lost mosaic from the Church of Santa Maria della Valle (known as Badiazza) near Messina, and the mosaic in the Cathedral of Messina. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Medieval Royal Iconography)

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Open AccessEntry

Metal Nanoparticles as Free-Floating Electrodes

by

Johann Michael Köhler

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Jonas Jakobus Kluitmann

and

Peter Mike Günther

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 551-565; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030046 - 12 Jul 2021

Definition

Colloidal metal nanoparticles in an electrolyte environment are not only electrically charged but also electrochemically active objects. They have the typical character of metal electrodes with ongoing charge transfer processes on the metal/liquid interface. This picture is valid for the equilibrium state and [...] Read more.

Colloidal metal nanoparticles in an electrolyte environment are not only electrically charged but also electrochemically active objects. They have the typical character of metal electrodes with ongoing charge transfer processes on the metal/liquid interface. This picture is valid for the equilibrium state and also during the formation, growth, aggregation or dissolution of nanoparticles. This behavior can be understood in analogy to macroscopic mixed-electrode systems with a free-floating potential, which is determined by the competition between anodic and cathodic partial processes. In contrast to macroscopic electrodes, the small size of nanoparticles is responsible for significant effects of low numbers of elementary charges and for self-polarization effects as they are known from molecular systems, for example. The electrical properties of nanoparticles can be estimated by basic electrochemical equations. Reconsidering these fundamentals, the assembly behavior, the formation of nonspherical assemblies of nanoparticles and the growth and the corrosion behavior of metal nanoparticles, as well as the formation of core/shell particles, branched structures and particle networks, can be understood. The consequences of electrochemical behavior, charging and self-polarization for particle growth, shape formation and particle/particle interaction are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Engineering)

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William II of Hauteville (1171–1189)

by

Mirko Vagnoni

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 542-550; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030045 - 03 Jul 2021

Definition

William II of Hauteville King of Sicily (1171–1189). William II of Hauteville was the third king of the Norman dynasty on the throne of Sicily. He ruled independently from 1171 (from 1166 to 1171 he was under the regency of his mother) to [...] Read more.

William II of Hauteville King of Sicily (1171–1189). William II of Hauteville was the third king of the Norman dynasty on the throne of Sicily. He ruled independently from 1171 (from 1166 to 1171 he was under the regency of his mother) to 1189. From an iconographic point of view, he is particularly interesting because he was the first king of Sicily who made use of monumental images of himself. In particular, we have five official (namely, commissioned directly by him or his entourage) representations of him: the royal bull, the royal seal, and three images from the Cathedral of Monreale (near Palermo): two mosaic panels and one carved capital. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Medieval Royal Iconography)

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Dnase1 Family in Autoimmunity

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Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 527-541; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030044 - 02 Jul 2021

Definition

The deoxyribonuclease 1 (Dnase1) family is a key family of endonucleases that degrades DNA. Loss of Dnase1 family function causes several diseases where the host’s immune system targets the host, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis syndrome. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medicine & Pharmacology)

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Air Quality during Covid-19 Lockdown

by

Gabriele Donzelli

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Lorenzo Cioni

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Mariagrazia Cancellieri

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Agustin Llopis-Morales

and

María Morales-Suárez-Varela

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(3), 519-526; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1030043 - 01 Jul 2021

Definition

Air pollution exposure is one of the greatest risks to health worldwide. It is estimated to be responsible for about 4.2 million deaths around the world every year owing to many serious diseases such as heart disease, stroke, acute and chronic respiratory diseases, [...] Read more.

Air pollution exposure is one of the greatest risks to health worldwide. It is estimated to be responsible for about 4.2 million deaths around the world every year owing to many serious diseases such as heart disease, stroke, acute and chronic respiratory diseases, and lung cancer. The WHO guideline limits are exceeded in several areas around the world, and it is estimated that about 90% of the world’s population is exposed to high air pollution levels, especially in low- and middle-income countries. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced governments to implement severe mobility restriction measures to limit the spread of the virus. This represented a unique opportunity to study the impact of mobility on urban air quality. Several studies which have investigated the relations between the quality of the air and such containment measures have shown the significant reduction of the main pollutants in the urban environment so to encourage the adoption of new approaches for the improvement of the quality of air in the cities. The aims of this entry are both a brief analysis and a discussion of the results presented in several papers to understand the relationships between COVID-19 containment measures and air quality in urban areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of COVID-19)

Open AccessEntry

Domestic Environmental Experience Design

by

Sajal Chowdhury

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Masa Noguchi

and

Hemanta Doloi

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 505-518; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1020042 - 21 Jun 2021

Definition

The term ‘domestic environmental experience’ was defined as users’ experiences of cognitive perceptions and physical responses to their domestic built environments. Domestic environments can be enriched through the implementation of environmental experience design (EXD) by combining users’ environmental, spatial and contextual factors that [...] Read more.

The term ‘domestic environmental experience’ was defined as users’ experiences of cognitive perceptions and physical responses to their domestic built environments. Domestic environments can be enriched through the implementation of environmental experience design (EXD) by combining users’ environmental, spatial and contextual factors that may accommodate occupants’ needs and demands as well as their health and wellbeing. Here, an EXD theoretical concept has been developed based on the ‘User-Centred Design’ thematical framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of ZEMCH Research and Development)

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COVID-19 and Dentistry

by

Hugh Devlin

and

Parisa Soltani

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 496-504; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1020041 - 21 Jun 2021

Definition

Dentistry is a healthcare profession requiring close contacts between the dental practitioner and the patient. In particular, many dental procedures generate aerosols and droplets which are proved to be the major transmission route for COVID-19. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of COVID-19)

Open AccessEntry

The Foundation of Classical Mechanics

by

Danilo Capecchi

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 482-495; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1020040 - 19 Jun 2021

Definition

Mechanics is the science of the equilibrium and motion of bodies subject to forces. The adjective classical, hence Classical Mechanics, was added in the 20th century to distinguish it from relativistic mechanics which studies motion with speed close to light speed and quantum [...] Read more.

Mechanics is the science of the equilibrium and motion of bodies subject to forces. The adjective classical, hence Classical Mechanics, was added in the 20th century to distinguish it from relativistic mechanics which studies motion with speed close to light speed and quantum mechanics which studies motion at a subatomic level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Engineering)

Open AccessEntry

SEM-PLS Approach to Green Building

by

Nasim Aghili

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Mehdi Amirkhani

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 472-481; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1020039 - 18 Jun 2021

Definition

Green buildings refer to buildings that decrease adverse environmental effects and maintain natural resources. They can diminish energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, the usage of non-renewable materials, water consumption, and waste generation while improving occupants’ health and well-being. As such, several rating tools [...] Read more.

Green buildings refer to buildings that decrease adverse environmental effects and maintain natural resources. They can diminish energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, the usage of non-renewable materials, water consumption, and waste generation while improving occupants’ health and well-being. As such, several rating tools and benchmarks have been developed worldwide to assess green building performance (GBP), including the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) in the United Kingdom, German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB), Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) in the United States and Canada, Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE) in Japan, Green Star in Australia, Green Mark in Singapore, and Green Building Index in Malaysia. Energy management (EM) during building operation could also improve GBP. One of the best approaches to evaluating the impact of EM on GBP is by using structural equation modelling (SEM). SEM is a commanding statistical method to model testing. One of the most used SEM variance-based approaches is partial least squares (PLS), which can be implemented in the SmartPLS application. PLS-SEM uses path coefficients to determine the strength and significance of the hypothesised relationships between the latent constructs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of ZEMCH Research and Development)

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Vibration-Assisted Ball Burnishing

by

Ramón Jerez-Mesa

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Jordi Llumà

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J. Antonio Travieso-Rodríguez

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 460-471; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1020038 - 11 Jun 2021

Definition

Vibration-Assisted Ball Burnishing is a finishing processed based on plastic deformation by means of a preloaded ball on a certain surface that rolls over it following a certain trajectory previously programmed while vibrating vertically. The dynamics of the process are based on the [...] Read more.

Vibration-Assisted Ball Burnishing is a finishing processed based on plastic deformation by means of a preloaded ball on a certain surface that rolls over it following a certain trajectory previously programmed while vibrating vertically. The dynamics of the process are based on the activation of the acoustoplastic effect on the material by means of the vibratory signal transmitted through the material lattice as a consequence of the mentioned oscillation of the ball. Materials processed by VABB show a modified surface in terms of topology distribution and scale, superior if compared to the results of the non-assisted process. Subgrain formation one of the main drivers that explain the change in hardness and residual stress resulting from the process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Engineering)

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Homocysteine Thiolactone: Biology and Chemistry

by

Alexey S. Chubarov

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 445-459; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1020037 - 04 Jun 2021

Definition

Homocysteine thiolactone is a five-membered cyclic thioester of amino acid homocysteine. It is generated from homocysteine as a result of an error-editing reaction, principally, of methionyl-tRNA synthetase. An elevated level of homocysteine thiolactone is associated with cardiovascular diseases, strokes, atherosclerosis, neurological abnormalities, etc., [...] Read more.

Homocysteine thiolactone is a five-membered cyclic thioester of amino acid homocysteine. It is generated from homocysteine as a result of an error-editing reaction, principally, of methionyl-tRNA synthetase. An elevated level of homocysteine thiolactone is associated with cardiovascular diseases, strokes, atherosclerosis, neurological abnormalities, etc., presumably because it reacts to the side chain of protein lysine causing protein damage and autoimmune responses. It is not only an important metabolite but also a versatile building block for organic and bioorganic synthesis. This entry contains data on the homocysteine thiolactone formation, metabolism, toxicity mechanism in vivo, and the bioorganic chemistry applications as a powerful synthetic tool in polymer science, sustainable materials development, and probes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biology & Life Sciences)

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Pandemic Prevention: Lessons from COVID-19

by

Mario Coccia

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 433-444; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/encyclopedia1020036 - 31 May 2021

Cited by 1

Definition

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which appeared in late 2019, generating a pandemic crisis with high numbers of COVID-19-related infected individuals and deaths in manifold countries worldwide. Lessons learned from COVID-19 can [...] Read more.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which appeared in late 2019, generating a pandemic crisis with high numbers of COVID-19-related infected individuals and deaths in manifold countries worldwide. Lessons learned from COVID-19 can be used to prevent pandemic threats by designing strategies to support different policy responses, not limited to the health system, directed to reduce the risks of the emergence of novel viral agents, the diffusion of infectious diseases and negative impact in society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of COVID-19)

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