Journal of Fungi

Editorial

3 pages, 223 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?

by Jorge Martínez Quesada

J. Fungi 2022, 8(8), 796; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8080796 - 29 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1131

Abstract

Allergic diseases represent a major global health problem [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

Research

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13 pages, 2066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Analysis of Cytochrome P450s of Alternaria Species: Evolutionary Origin, Family Expansion and Putative Functions

by Wadzani Palnam Dauda, Daji Morumda, Peter Abraham, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Shakira Ghazanfar, Elkanah Glen, Shittu Emmanuel Abraham, Grace Wabba Peter, Israel Ogwuche Ogra, Ulasi Joseph Ifeanyi, Hannatu Musa, Mawuli Kwamla Azameti, Bilal Ahamad Paray and Aneela Gulnaz

J. Fungi 2022, 8(4), 324; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8040324 - 22 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2338

Abstract

Cytochrome P450s are a group of monooxygenase enzymes involved in primary, secondary and xenobiotic metabolisms. They have a wide application in the agriculture sector where they could serve as a target for herbicides or fungicides, while they could function in the pharmaceutical industry [...] Read more.

Cytochrome P450s are a group of monooxygenase enzymes involved in primary, secondary and xenobiotic metabolisms. They have a wide application in the agriculture sector where they could serve as a target for herbicides or fungicides, while they could function in the pharmaceutical industry as drugs or drugs structures or for bioconversions. Alternaria species are among the most commonly encountered fungal genera, with most of them living as saprophytes in different habitats, while others are parasites of plants and animals. This study was conducted to elucidate the diversity and abundance, evolutionary relationships and cellular localization of 372 cytochrome P450 in 13 Alternaria species. The 372 CYP proteins were phylogenetically clustered into ten clades. Forty (40) clans and seventy-one (71) cyp families were identified, of which eleven (11) families were found to appear in one species each. The majority of the CYP proteins were located in the endomembrane system. Polyketide synthase (PKS) gene cluster was the predominant secondary metabolic-related gene cluster in all the Alternaria species studied, except in A. porriof, where non-ribosomal peptide synthetase genes were dominant. This study reveals the expansion of cyps in these fungal genera, evident in the family and clan expansions, which is usually associated with the evolution of fungal characteristics, especially their lifestyle either as parasites or saprophytes, with the ability to metabolize a wide spectrum of substrates. This study can be used to understand the biology, physiology and toxigenic potentials of P450 in these fungal genera. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

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12 pages, 1261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Airborne Alt a 1 Dynamic and Its Relationship with the Airborne Dynamics of Alternaria Conidia and Pleosporales Spores

by Concepción De Linares, David Navarro, Rut Puigdemunt and Jordina Belmonte

J. Fungi 2022, 8(2), 125; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8020125 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2187

Abstract

Fungal spores are universal atmospheric components associated to allergic reactions. Alternaria (Ascomycota) is considered the most allergenic spore taxa. Alt a 1 is the major allergen of Alternaria and is present also in other Pleosporales. In this study, standard Hirst-based sampling and [...] Read more.

Fungal spores are universal atmospheric components associated to allergic reactions. Alternaria (Ascomycota) is considered the most allergenic spore taxa. Alt a 1 is the major allergen of Alternaria and is present also in other Pleosporales. In this study, standard Hirst-based sampling and analyzing methods for measuring spore daily concentrations of Alternaria, Curvularia, Drechslera-Helminthosporium, Epicoccum, Leptosphaeria, Pithomyces, Pleospora and Stemphylium (all included in the taxon Pleosporales) have been used as well as two high-volume samplers, Burkard Cyclone (2017) and MCV CAV-A/mb (2019–2020), and ELISA kits for measuring the allergen. The detection and quantification of Alt a 1 was only possible in the samples from the MCV sampler. Although Alt a 1 was better correlated with Alternaria spores than with Pleosporales spores, the three of them showed high correlations. It is shown that there is a high and significant correlation of Alt a 1 with temperature, a negative correlation with relative humidity and no correlation with precipitation. The aerobiological monitoring of these three elements ensures the best information for understanding the affectation to allergy sufferers, but, if this is not possible, as a minimum public health service aimed at the detection, treatment and prevention of allergies, the study of the airborne Alternaria spores should be ensured. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

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17 pages, 2701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in the Sensitization Pattern to Alternaria alternata Allergens in Patients Treated with Alt a 1 Immunotherapy

by David Rodríguez, Ana I. Tabar, Miriam Castillo, Montserrat Martínez-Gomariz, Isabel C. Dobski and Ricardo Palacios

J. Fungi 2021, 7(11), 974; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7110974 - 16 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2238

Abstract

Alternaria alternata is the most important allergenic fungus, with up to 20% of allergic patients affected. The sensitization profile of patients sensitized to A. alternata and how it changes when treated with immunotherapy is not known. Our objective is to determine the allergen [...] Read more.

Alternaria alternata is the most important allergenic fungus, with up to 20% of allergic patients affected. The sensitization profile of patients sensitized to A. alternata and how it changes when treated with immunotherapy is not known. Our objective is to determine the allergen recognition pattern of allergic patients to A. alternata and to study its association to the parameters studied in a clinical trial recently published. Sera of 64 patients from the clinical trial of immunotherapy with native major allergen Alt a 1 were analyzed by immunoblotting; 98. 4% of the patients recognized Alt a 1. The percentage of recognition for Alt a 3, Alt a 4, and/or Alt a 6, Alt a 7, Alt a 8, Alt a 10 and/or Alt a 15 was 1.6%, 21.9%, 12.5%, 12.5%, and 12.5% respectively. Of the 64 patients, 45 (70.3%) only recognized Alt a 1 among the allergens present in the A. alternata extract. Immunotherapy with Alt a 1 desensitizes treated patients, reducing their symptoms and medication consumption through the elimination of Alt a 1 sensitization, which is no longer present in the immunoblotting of some patients. There may be gender differences in the pattern of sensitization to A. alternata allergens, among others. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

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14 pages, 2738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Purified Native and Recombinant Major Alternaria alternata Allergen (Alt a 1) Induces Allergic Asthma in the Murine Model

by Ainara Vélez-del-Burgo, Patricia Sánchez, Ester Suñen, Jorge Martínez and Idoia Postigo

J. Fungi 2021, 7(11), 896; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7110896 - 24 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2053

Abstract

Aeroallergens such us the spores of Alternaria alternata are described as the most important agents associated with respiratory allergies and severe asthma. Various experimental models of asthma have been developed using A. alternata extracts to study the pathogenesis of asthma, establishing the main [...] Read more.

Aeroallergens such us the spores of Alternaria alternata are described as the most important agents associated with respiratory allergies and severe asthma. Various experimental models of asthma have been developed using A. alternata extracts to study the pathogenesis of asthma, establishing the main parameters that trigger the asthmatic response. In this study, we describe a mouse model of asthma induced only by Alt a 1. To induce the allergic response, mice were challenged intranasally with the major allergen of A. alternata, Alt a 1. The presence of eosinophils in the lungs, elevated concentrations of Th2 family cytokines, lymphocyte proliferation and elevated IgE total serum levels indicated that the sensitisation and challenge with Alt a 1 induced the development of airway inflammation. Histological studies showed an eosinophilic cellular infiltrate in the lung tissue of mice instilled with Alt a 1. We demonstrate that Alt a 1 alone is capable of inducing a lung inflammatory response with an increase in IgE serum levels mimicking the allergic asthma immunoresponse when it is administered into BALB/c mice. This model will allow the evaluation of the immunoregulatory or immunotolerant capacity of several molecules that can be used in targeted immunotherapy for fungal allergic asthma. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

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11 pages, 1739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fungi Sensitization in Spain: Importance of the Alternaria alternata Species and Its Major Allergen Alt a 1 in the Allergenicity

by Verónica P. López Couso, Miguel Tortajada-Girbés, David Rodriguez Gil, Jorge Martínez Quesada and Ricardo Palacios Pelaez

J. Fungi 2021, 7(8), 631; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7080631 - 3 Aug 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2399

Abstract

Prevalence of allergy to fungi is around 3–10%. The most prevalent species involved in sensitizations are Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cladosporium herbarum, and Penicillium notatum. Our main objective was to estimate the prevalence of fungal sensitization and its variation across Spain. Following [...] Read more.

Prevalence of allergy to fungi is around 3–10%. The most prevalent species involved in sensitizations are Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cladosporium herbarum, and Penicillium notatum. Our main objective was to estimate the prevalence of fungal sensitization and its variation across Spain. Following the ICH-GCP, we recruited 1156 patients from 15 allergy departments in Spain. Hospitals were selected by bioclimatic areas. Patients underwent a skin prick test (SPT) with fungi, pollens, house dust mites, and animal dander. Specific IgE to Alternaria alternata and Alt a 1 was assessed in patients with positive SPT to fungi. Of the 233 patients (20.2%) sensitized to at least one of the five fungi tested, 162 (69.5%) were sensitized to Alternaria alternata and Alt a 1, of whom 113 (69.8%) were children; 181 (77.7%) were also polysensitized to other allergens. Alternaria alternata and Alt a 1 sensitization was present in 25.4% of patients in the Continental area, 12.0% in the Mediterranean area, 7.0% in the Semidesertic area, and 2.3% in the Oceanic area. Prevalence of sensitization to the other tested sources was 63.8% to pollens, 60.5% to house dust mite, and 38.1% to animal dander. We concluded that the prevalence of fungal allergy is increasing. Fungi are still the fourth source of allergen sensitization. Alternaria alternata sensitization is the most prevalent in allergic patients to fungi. Alt a 1 is present in almost 90% of the patients sensitized to Alternaria alternata. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

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Review

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11 pages, 335 KiB

Open AccessReview

Fungal Allergen and Mold Allergy Diagnosis: Role and Relevance of Alternaria alternata Alt a 1 Protein Family

by Patricia Sánchez, Ainara Vélez-del-Burgo, Ester Suñén, Jorge Martínez and Idoia Postigo

J. Fungi 2022, 8(3), 277; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8030277 - 9 Mar 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4254

Abstract

Alternaria is a genus of worldwide fungi found in different habitats such as soil, the atmosphere, plants or indoor environments. Alternaria species are saprobic—largely involved in the decomposition of organic material—but they can also act as animal pathogens, causing disease in humans and [...] Read more.

Alternaria is a genus of worldwide fungi found in different habitats such as soil, the atmosphere, plants or indoor environments. Alternaria species are saprobic—largely involved in the decomposition of organic material—but they can also act as animal pathogens, causing disease in humans and animals, developing infections, toxicosis and allergic diseases. A. alternata is considered one of the most important sources of fungal allergens worldwide and it is associated with severe asthma and respiratory status. Among the A. alternata allergens, Alt a 1 is the main sensitizing allergen and its usefulness in diagnosis and immunotherapy has been demonstrated. Alt a 1 seems to define a protein family that can be used to identify related pathogenic fungi in plants and fruits, and to establish taxonomic relationships between the different fungal divisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

13 pages, 697 KiB

Open AccessReview

Allergy to Fungi in Veterinary Medicine: Alternaria, Dermatophytes and Malassezia Pay the Bill!

by Luís Miguel Lourenço Martins

J. Fungi 2022, 8(3), 235; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8030235 - 27 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6895

Abstract

The fungal kingdom comprises ubiquitous forms of life with 1.5 billion years, mostly phytopathogenic and commensals for humans and animals. However, in the presence of immune disorders, fungi may cause disease by intoxicating, infecting or sensitizing with allergy. Species from the genera Alternaria [...] Read more.

The fungal kingdom comprises ubiquitous forms of life with 1.5 billion years, mostly phytopathogenic and commensals for humans and animals. However, in the presence of immune disorders, fungi may cause disease by intoxicating, infecting or sensitizing with allergy. Species from the genera Alternaria, Aspergillus and Malassezia, as well as dermatophytes from the genera Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton, are the most commonly implicated in veterinary medicine. Alternaria and Malassezia stand as the most commonly associated with either allergy or infection in animals, immediately followed by Aspergillus, while dermatophytes are usually associated with the ringworm skin infection. By aiming at the relevance of fungi in veterinary allergy it was concluded that further research is still needed, especially in the veterinary field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

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14 pages, 1411 KiB

Open AccessReview

Alternaria as an Inducer of Allergic Sensitization

by Guadalupe Hernandez-Ramirez, Domingo Barber, Jaime Tome-Amat, Maria Garrido-Arandia and Araceli Diaz-Perales

J. Fungi 2021, 7(10), 838; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7100838 - 7 Oct 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4343

Abstract

Alternaria alternata is a saprophytic mold whose spores are disseminated in warm dry air, the typical weather of the Mediterranean climate region (from 30° to 45°), with a peak during the late summer and early autumn. Alternaria spores are known to be biological [...] Read more.

Alternaria alternata is a saprophytic mold whose spores are disseminated in warm dry air, the typical weather of the Mediterranean climate region (from 30° to 45°), with a peak during the late summer and early autumn. Alternaria spores are known to be biological contaminants and a potent source of aeroallergens. One consequence of human exposure to Alternaria is an increased risk of developing asthma, with Alt a 1 as its main elicitor and a marker of primary sensitization. Although the action mechanism needs further investigation, a key role of the epithelium in cytokine production, TLR-activated alveolar macrophages and innate lymphoid cells in the adaptive response was demonstrated. Furthermore, sensitization to A. alternata seems to be a trigger for the development of co-sensitization to other allergen sources and may act as an exacerbator of symptoms and an elicitor of food allergies. The prevalence of A. alternata allergy is increasing and has led to expanding research on the role of this fungal species in the induction of IgE-mediated respiratory diseases. Indeed, recent research has allowed new perspectives to be considered in the assessment of exposure and diagnosis of fungi-induced allergies, although more studies are needed for the standardization of immunotherapy formulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternaria alternata: Should We Still Consider This Fungus as a Minor Brother in the Etiology of Respiratory Allergy?)

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