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Paralytic Shellfish Toxins: Analysis, New Analogs, Toxicology, Vectors, and Impacts in Wildlife

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine and Freshwater Toxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2022) | Viewed by 13791

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Begoña Ben-Gigirey

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Guest Editor

Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro, 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain
Interests: marine biotoxin analysis; paralytic shellfish toxins; amnesic shellfish toxins; lipophillic toxins; emerging toxins; harmful algal blooms; non-traditional vectors; impacts in seabirds; toxicology; molecular detection tools

Dr. Rosa Isabel Figueroa

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Guest Editor

Group VGOHAB (noxious and toxic microalgae), Spanish Institute of Oceanography, Subida a Radio Faro, 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain
Interests: cell cycle; dinoflagellates; flow cytometry; life cycles; meiosis; microparasites; PSP regulation; resting cysts

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are a group of natural neurotoxic alkaloids that can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). PSP is characterized by neurological symptoms that vary from mild to severe and can even result in death. PSTs bioaccumulate in certain marine biota, are transferred throughout aquatic food webs, and can be vectored to humans. Therefore, it is essential to regularly monitor the production of phytoplankton and shellfish PST content in harvesting areas. PSTs can also seriously impact marine ecosystems, causing strandings and deaths in seabirds, seals, whales, etc. For years, fishery closures and PSP in humans were mainly attributed to filter-feeders (i.e., bivalve mollusks), although certain countries monitor other seafood as well. Recent studies report more frequent findings of PSTs in additional invertebrate vectors and fish. Therefore, it is essential to gather more data for the purpose of risk assessment and evaluation and to review monitoring strategies accordingly. Monitoring programs rely on intensive sampling and analysis that require rapid, sensitive, accurate, and precise testing methods. The accuracy of these methods is, among other factors, dependent on the availability of reference materials (standards and tissues), information on the congener’s toxicity, and the identification of new analogues.

This Special Issue is open to original research articles and reviews dealing with PSTs and the following subjects:

- new analytical methods (substantial modifications of internationally validated/well-established methods or their application to new matrixes);

- development of new reference materials;

- identification and characterization of new congeners;

- toxicological studies;

- the impact of PSTs on wildlife and new reports in non-traditional vectors;

- novel detection tools of PSTs production in marine environmental samples;

- biosynthetic pathways and gene regulation of PSTs; and

- toxinological studies leading to unveil environmental conditions or genetically determined factors responsible for differences in PSTs profiles between groups or strains from the same taxon.

Dr. Begoña Ben-Gigirey

Dr. Rosa Isabel Figueroa
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

paralytic shellfish toxins
analytical methods
reference materials
molecular detection tools
new congeners
new vectors
impacts in wildlife
toxicology

Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 4899 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling the Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PST) at Different Scales: Implications for Research and Management

by Patricio A. Díaz, Carlos Molinet, Miriam Seguel, Edwin J. Niklitschek, Manuel Díaz, Gonzalo Álvarez, Iván Pérez-Santos, Daniel Varela, Leonardo Guzmán, Camilo Rodríguez-Villegas and Rosa I. Figueroa

Toxins 2022, 14(11), 786; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins14110786 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1759

Abstract

Harmful algal blooms, in particular recurrent blooms of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella, associated with paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), frequently limit commercial shellfish harvests, resulting in serious socio-economic consequences. Although the PSP-inducing species that threaten the most vulnerable commercial species of shellfish are very patchy and spatially heterogeneous in their distribution, the spatial and temporal scales of their effects have largely been ignored in monitoring programs and by researchers. In this study, we examined the spatial and temporal dynamics of PSP toxicity in the clam (Ameghinomya antiqua) in two fishing grounds in southern Chile (Ovalada Island and Low Bay). During the summer of 2009, both were affected by an intense toxic bloom of A. catenella (up to 1.1 × 10⁶ cells L⁻¹). Generalized linear models were used to assess the potential influence of different environmental variables on the field detoxification rates of PSP toxins over a period of 12 months. This was achieved using a four parameter exponential decay model to fit and compare field detoxification rates per sampling site. The results show differences in the spatial variability and temporal dynamics of PSP toxicity, given that greater toxicities (+10-fold) and faster detoxification (20% faster) are observed at the Ovalada Island site, the less oceanic zone, and where higher amounts of clam are annually produced. Our observations support the relevance of considering different spatial and temporal scales to obtain more accurate assessments of PSP accumulation and detoxification dynamics and to improve the efficacy of fisheries management after toxic events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Paralytic Shellfish Toxins: Analysis, New Analogs, Toxicology, Vectors, and Impacts in Wildlife)

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16 pages, 2928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Latitudinal Variation in the Toxicity and Sexual Compatibility of Alexandrium catenella Strains from Southern Chile

by Camilo Rodríguez-Villegas, Patricio A. Díaz, Pilar Riobó, Araceli E. Rossignoli, Francisco Rodríguez, Patricia Loures, Ángela M. Baldrich, Daniel Varela, Alondra Sandoval-Sanhueza and Rosa I. Figueroa

Toxins 2021, 13(12), 900; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13120900 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2483

Abstract

The bloom-forming toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella was first detected in southern Chile (39.5–55° S) 50 years ago and is responsible for most of the area’s cases of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Given the complex life history of A. catenella, which includes benthic sexual cysts, in this study, we examined the potential link between latitude, toxicity, and sexual compatibility. Nine clones isolated from Chilean Patagonia were used in self- and out-crosses in all possible combinations (n = 45). The effect of latitude on toxicity, reproductive success indexes, and cyst production was also determined. Using the toxin profiles for all strains, consisting of C1, C2, GTX4, GTX1, GTX3, and NeoSTX, a latitudinal gradient was determined for their proportions (%) and content per cell (pg cell⁻¹), with the more toxic strains occurring in the north (−40.6° S). Reproductive success also showed a latitudinal tendency and was lower in the north. None of the self-crosses yielded resting cysts. Rather, the production of resting cysts was highest in pairings of clones separated by distances of 1000–1650 km. Our results contribute to a better understanding of PSP outbreaks in the region and demonstrate the importance of resting cysts in fueling new toxic events. They also provide additional evidence that the introduction of strains from neighboring regions is a cause for concern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Paralytic Shellfish Toxins: Analysis, New Analogs, Toxicology, Vectors, and Impacts in Wildlife)

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12 pages, 1872 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

First Report of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Marine Invertebrates and Fish in Spain

by Begoña Ben-Gigirey, Araceli E. Rossignoli, Pilar Riobó and Francisco Rodríguez

Toxins 2020, 12(11), 723; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins12110723 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2906

Abstract

A paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) episode developed in summer 2018 in the Rías Baixas (Galicia, NW Spain). The outbreak was associated with an unprecedentedly intense and long-lasting harmful algal bloom (HAB) (~one month) caused by the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum. Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) were analyzed in extracts of 45 A. minutum strains isolated from the bloom by high-performance liquid chromatography with post-column oxidation and fluorescence detection (HPLC-PCOX-FLD). PSTs were also evaluated in tissues from marine fauna (invertebrates and fish) collected during the episode and in dolphin samples. The analysis of 45 A. minutum strains revealed a toxic profile including GTX1, GTX2, GTX3 and GTX4 toxins. With regard to the marine fauna samples, the highest PSTs levels were quantified in bivalve mollusks, but the toxins were also found in mullets, mackerels, starfish, squids and ascidians. This study reveals the potential accumulation of PSTs in marine invertebrates other than shellfish that could act as vectors in the trophic chain or pose a risk for human consumption. To our knowledge, this is the first time that PSTs are reported in ascidians and starfish from Spain. Moreover, it is the first time that evidence of PSTs in squids is described in Europe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Paralytic Shellfish Toxins: Analysis, New Analogs, Toxicology, Vectors, and Impacts in Wildlife)

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Review

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34 pages, 3434 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Paralytic and Amnesic Shellfish Toxins Impacts on Seabirds, Analyses and Management

by Begoña Ben-Gigirey, Lucía Soliño, Isabel Bravo, Francisco Rodríguez and María V. M. Casero

Toxins 2021, 13(7), 454; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/toxins13070454 - 29 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5696

Abstract

Marine biotoxins have been frequently implicated in morbidity and mortality events in numerous species of birds worldwide. Nevertheless, their effects on seabirds have often been overlooked and the associated ecological impact has not been extensively studied. On top of that, the number of published studies confirming by analyses the presence of marine biotoxins from harmful algal blooms (HABs) in seabirds, although having increased in recent years, is still quite low. This review compiles information on studies evidencing the impact of HAB toxins on marine birds, with a special focus on the effects of paralytic and amnesic shellfish toxins (PSTs and ASTs). It is mainly centered on studies in which the presence of PSTs and/or ASTs in seabird samples was demonstrated through analyses. The analytical techniques commonly employed, the tissues selected and the adjustments done in protocols for processing seabird matrixes are summarized. Other topics covered include the role of different vectors in the seabird intoxications, information on clinical signs in birds affected by PSTs and ASTs, and multifactorial causes which could aggravate the syndromes. Close collaboration between seabird experts and marine biotoxins researchers is needed to identify and report the potential involvement of HABs and their toxins in the mortality events. Future studies on the PSTs and ASTs pharmacodynamics, together with the establishment of lethal doses in various seabird species, are also necessary. These studies would aid in the selection of the target organs for toxins analyses and in the postmortem intoxication diagnoses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Paralytic Shellfish Toxins: Analysis, New Analogs, Toxicology, Vectors, and Impacts in Wildlife)

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