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Open AccessArticle

Caspase-1 Dependent IL-1β Secretion and Antigen-Specific T-Cell Activation by the Novel Adjuvant, PCEP

by Sunita Awate, Nelson F. Eng, Volker Gerdts, Lorne A. Babiuk and George Mutwiri

Vaccines 2014, 2(3), 500-514; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines2030500 - 26 Jun 2014

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6867

The potent adjuvant activity of the novel adjuvant, poly[di(sodiumcarboxylatoethylphenoxy)phosphazene] (PCEP), with various antigens has been reported previously. However, very little is known about its mechanisms of action. We have recently reported that intramuscular injection of PCEP induces NLRP3, an inflammasome receptor gene, and [...] Read more.

The potent adjuvant activity of the novel adjuvant, poly[di(sodiumcarboxylatoethylphenoxy)phosphazene] (PCEP), with various antigens has been reported previously. However, very little is known about its mechanisms of action. We have recently reported that intramuscular injection of PCEP induces NLRP3, an inflammasome receptor gene, and inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and IL-18, in mouse muscle tissue. Caspase-1 is required for the processing of pro-forms of IL-1β and IL-18 into mature forms and is a critical constituent of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Hence, in the present study, we investigated the role of caspase-1 in the secretion of IL-1β and IL-18 in PCEP-stimulated splenic dendritic cells (DCs). Caspase inhibitor YVAD-fmk-treated splenic DCs showed significantly reduced IL-1β and IL-18 secretion in response to PCEP stimulation. Further, PCEP had no effect on the expression of MHC class II or co-stimulatory molecules, CD86 and CD40, suggesting that PCEP does not induce DC maturation. However, PCEP directly activated B-cells to induce significant production of IgM. In addition, PCEP+ovalbumin (OVA) immunized mice showed significantly increased production of antigen-specific IFN-γ by CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells. We conclude that PCEP activates innate immunity, leading to increased antigen-specific T-cell responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Adjuvants)

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574 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vaccine Adjuvants in Fish Vaccines Make a Difference: Comparing Three Adjuvants (Montanide ISA763A Oil, CpG/Poly I:C Combo and VHSV Glycoprotein) Alone or in Combination Formulated with an Inactivated Whole Salmonid Alphavirus Antigen

by Hanna L. Thim, Stéphane Villoing, Marian McLoughlin, Karen Elina Christie, Søren Grove, Petter Frost and Jorunn B. Jørgensen

Vaccines 2014, 2(2), 228-251; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines2020228 - 25 Mar 2014

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 11837

Abstract

Most commercial vaccines offered to the aquaculture industry include inactivated antigens (Ag) formulated in oil adjuvants. Safety concerns are related to the use of oil adjuvants in multivalent vaccines for fish, since adverse side effects (e.g., adhesions) can appear. Therefore, there is a [...] Read more.

Most commercial vaccines offered to the aquaculture industry include inactivated antigens (Ag) formulated in oil adjuvants. Safety concerns are related to the use of oil adjuvants in multivalent vaccines for fish, since adverse side effects (e.g., adhesions) can appear. Therefore, there is a request for vaccine formulations for which protection will be maintained or improved, while the risk of side effects is reduced. Here, by using an inactivated salmonid alphavirus (SAV) as the test Ag, the combined use of two Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligand adjuvants, CpG oligonucleotides (ODNs) and poly I:C, as well as a genetic adjuvant consisting of a DNA plasmid vector expressing the viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) glycoprotein (G) was explored. VHSV-G DNA vaccine was intramuscularly injected in combination with intraperitoneal injection of either SAV Ag alone or combined with the oil adjuvant, Montanide ISA763, or the CpG/polyI:C combo. Adjuvant formulations were evaluated for their ability to boost immune responses and induce protection against SAV in Atlantic salmon, following cohabitation challenge. It was observed that CpG/polyI:C-based formulations generated the highest neutralizing antibody titres (nAbs) before challenge, which endured post challenge. nAb responses for VHSV G-DNA- and oil-adjuvanted formulations were marginal compared to the CpG/poly I:C treatment. Interestingly, heat-inactivated sera showed reduced nAb titres compared to their non-heated counterparts, which suggests a role of complement-mediated neutralization against SAV. Consistently elevated levels of innate antiviral immune genes in the CpG/polyI:C injected groups suggested a role of IFN-mediated responses. Co-delivery of the VHSV-G DNA construct with either CpG/polyI:C or oil-adjuvanted SAV vaccine generated higher CD4 responses in head kidney at 48 h compared to injection of this vector or SAV Ag alone. The results demonstrate that a combination of pattern recognizing receptor (PRR) ligands, such as CpG/polyI:C, increases both adaptive and innate responses and represents a promising adjuvant strategy for enhancing the protection of future viral vaccines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Adjuvants)

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839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

HSP70 Promoter-Driven Activation of Gene Expression for Immunotherapy Using Gold Nanorods and Near Infrared Light

by Helen A. Andersson, Yoo-Shin Kim, Brian E. O'Neill, Zheng-Zheng Shi and Rita E. Serda

Vaccines 2014, 2(2), 216-227; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines2020216 - 25 Mar 2014

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 10241

Abstract

Modulation of the cytokine milieu is one approach for vaccine development. However, therapy with pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-12, is limited in practice due to adverse systemic effects. Spatially-restricted gene expression circumvents this problem by enabling localized amplification. Intracellular co-delivery of gold nanorods [...] Read more.

Modulation of the cytokine milieu is one approach for vaccine development. However, therapy with pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-12, is limited in practice due to adverse systemic effects. Spatially-restricted gene expression circumvents this problem by enabling localized amplification. Intracellular co-delivery of gold nanorods (AuNR) and a heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) promoter-driven expression vector enables gene expression in response to near infrared (NIR) light. AuNRs absorb the light, convert it into heat and thereby stimulate photothermal expression of the cytokine. As proof-of-concept, human HeLa and murine B16 cancer cells were transfected with a HSP70-Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (EGFP) plasmid and polyethylenimine (PEI)-conjugated AuNRs. Exposure to either 42 °C heat-shock or NIR light induced significant expression of the reporter gene. In vivoNIR driven expression of the reporter gene was confirmed at 6 and 24 h in mice bearing B16 melanoma tumors using in vivo imaging and flow-cytometric analysis. Overall, we demonstrate a novel opportunity for site-directed, heat-inducible expression of a gene based upon the NIR-absorbing properties of AuNRs and a HSP70 promoter-driven expression vector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Adjuvants)

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Review

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Open AccessReview

Choice and Design of Adjuvants for Parenteral and Mucosal Vaccines

by Huub F. J. Savelkoul, Valerie A. Ferro, Marius M. Strioga and Virgil E. J. C. Schijns

Vaccines 2015, 3(1), 148-171; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines3010148 - 05 Mar 2015

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 10198

Abstract

The existence of pathogens that escape recognition by specific vaccines, the need to improve existing vaccines and the increased availability of therapeutic (non-infectious disease) vaccines necessitate the rational development of novel vaccine concepts based on the induction of protective cell-mediated immune responses. For [...] Read more.

The existence of pathogens that escape recognition by specific vaccines, the need to improve existing vaccines and the increased availability of therapeutic (non-infectious disease) vaccines necessitate the rational development of novel vaccine concepts based on the induction of protective cell-mediated immune responses. For naive T-cell activation, several signals resulting from innate and adaptive interactions need to be integrated, and adjuvants may interfere with some or all of these signals. Adjuvants, for example, are used to promote the immunogenicity of antigens in vaccines, by inducing a pro-inflammatory environment that enables the recruitment and promotion of the infiltration of phagocytic cells, particularly antigen-presenting cells (APC), to the injection site. Adjuvants can enhance antigen presentation, induce cytokine expression, activate APC and modulate more downstream adaptive immune reactions (vaccine delivery systems, facilitating immune Signal 1). In addition, adjuvants can act as immunopotentiators (facilitating Signals 2 and 3) exhibiting immune stimulatory effects during antigen presentation by inducing the expression of co-stimulatory molecules on APC. Together, these signals determine the strength of activation of specific T-cells, thereby also influencing the quality of the downstream T helper cytokine profiles and the differentiation of antigen-specific T helper populations (Signal 3). New adjuvants should also target specific (innate) immune cells in order to facilitate proper activation of downstream adaptive immune responses and homing (Signal 4). It is desirable that these adjuvants should be able to exert such responses in the context of mucosal administered vaccines. This review focuses on the understanding of the potential working mechanisms of the most well-known classes of adjuvants to be used effectively in vaccines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Adjuvants)

906 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Review of Recent Advances in Equine Influenza Vaccination

by Romain Paillot

Vaccines 2014, 2(4), 797-831; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines2040797 - 14 Nov 2014

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 14758

Abstract

Equine influenza (EI) is a major respiratory disease of horses, which is still causing substantial outbreaks worldwide despite several decades of surveillance and prevention. Alongside quarantine procedures, vaccination is widely used to prevent or limit spread of the disease. The panel of EI [...] Read more.

Equine influenza (EI) is a major respiratory disease of horses, which is still causing substantial outbreaks worldwide despite several decades of surveillance and prevention. Alongside quarantine procedures, vaccination is widely used to prevent or limit spread of the disease. The panel of EI vaccines commercially available is probably one of the most varied, including whole inactivated virus vaccines, Immuno-Stimulating Complex adjuvanted vaccines (ISCOM and ISCOM-Matrix), a live attenuated equine influenza virus (EIV) vaccine and a recombinant poxvirus-vectored vaccine. Several other strategies of vaccination are also evaluated. This systematic review reports the advances of EI vaccines during the last few years as well as some of the mechanisms behind the inefficient or sub-optimal response of horses to vaccination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Adjuvants)

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887 KiB

Open AccessReview

Immune Adjuvant Effect of Molecularly-defined Toll-Like Receptor Ligands

by Deana N. Toussi and Paola Massari

Vaccines 2014, 2(2), 323-353; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines2020323 - 25 Apr 2014

Cited by 114 | Viewed by 18380

Abstract

Vaccine efficacy is optimized by addition of immune adjuvants. However, although adjuvants have been used for over a century, to date, only few adjuvants are approved for human use, mostly aimed at improving vaccine efficacy and antigen-specific protective antibody production. The mechanism of [...] Read more.

Vaccine efficacy is optimized by addition of immune adjuvants. However, although adjuvants have been used for over a century, to date, only few adjuvants are approved for human use, mostly aimed at improving vaccine efficacy and antigen-specific protective antibody production. The mechanism of action of immune adjuvants is diverse, depending on their chemical and molecular nature, ranging from non-specific effects (i.e., antigen depot at the immunization site) to specific activation of immune cells leading to improved host innate and adaptive responses. Although the detailed molecular mechanism of action of many adjuvants is still elusive, the discovery of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) has provided new critical information on immunostimulatory effect of numerous bacterial components that engage TLRs. These ligands have been shown to improve both the quality and the quantity of host adaptive immune responses when used in vaccine formulations targeted to infectious diseases and cancer that require both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. The potential of such TLR adjuvants in improving the design and the outcomes of several vaccines is continuously evolving, as new agonists are discovered and tested in experimental and clinical models of vaccination. In this review, a summary of the recent progress in development of TLR adjuvants is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Adjuvants)

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694 KiB

Open AccessReview

Vaccine Potentiation by Combination Adjuvants

by Benoît Levast, Sunita Awate, Lorne Babiuk, George Mutwiri, Volker Gerdts and Sylvia Van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk

Vaccines 2014, 2(2), 297-322; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines2020297 - 14 Apr 2014

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 9885

Abstract

Adjuvants are crucial components of vaccines. They significantly improve vaccine efficacy by modulating, enhancing, or extending the immune response and at the same time reducing the amount of antigen needed. In contrast to previously licensed adjuvants, current successful adjuvant formulations often consist of [...] Read more.

Adjuvants are crucial components of vaccines. They significantly improve vaccine efficacy by modulating, enhancing, or extending the immune response and at the same time reducing the amount of antigen needed. In contrast to previously licensed adjuvants, current successful adjuvant formulations often consist of several molecules, that when combined, act synergistically by activating a variety of immune mechanisms. These “combination adjuvants” are already registered with several vaccines, both in humans and animals, and novel combination adjuvants are in the pipeline. With improved knowledge of the type of immune responses needed to successfully induce disease protection by vaccination, combination adjuvants are particularly suited to not only enhance, but also direct the immune responses desired to be either Th1-, Th2- or Th17-biased. Indeed, in view of the variety of disease and population targets for vaccine development, a panel of adjuvants will be needed to address different disease targets and populations. Here, we will review well-known and new combination adjuvants already licensed or currently in development—including ISCOMs, liposomes, Adjuvant Systems Montanides, and triple adjuvant combinations—and summarize their performance in preclinical and clinical trials. Several of these combination adjuvants are promising having promoted improved and balanced immune responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Adjuvants)

530 KiB

Open AccessReview

Adjuvants in the Driver’s Seat: How Magnitude, Type, Fine Specificity and Longevity of Immune Responses Are Driven by Distinct Classes of Immune Potentiators

by Elke S. Bergmann-Leitner and Wolfgang W. Leitner

Vaccines 2014, 2(2), 252-296; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines2020252 - 10 Apr 2014

Cited by 75 | Viewed by 13948

Abstract

The mechanism by which vaccine adjuvants enhance immune responses has historically been considered to be the creation of an antigen depot. From here, the antigen is slowly released and provided to immune cells over an extended period of time. This “depot” was formed [...] Read more.

The mechanism by which vaccine adjuvants enhance immune responses has historically been considered to be the creation of an antigen depot. From here, the antigen is slowly released and provided to immune cells over an extended period of time. This “depot” was formed by associating the antigen with substances able to persist at the injection site, such as aluminum salts or emulsions. The identification of Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) has greatly advanced our understanding of how adjuvants work beyond the simple concept of extended antigen release and has accelerated the development of novel adjuvants. This review focuses on the mode of action of different adjuvant classes in regards to the stimulation of specific immune cell subsets, the biasing of immune responses towards cellular or humoral immune response, the ability to mediate epitope spreading and the induction of persistent immunological memory. A better understanding of how particular adjuvants mediate their biological effects will eventually allow them to be selected for specific vaccines in a targeted and rational manner. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vaccine Adjuvants)

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