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Vaccines
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West Nile Virus Disease
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West Nile Virus Disease

A special issue of Vaccines (ISSN 2076-393X). This special issue belongs to the section "Vaccines against (re)emerging and Tropical Infections Diseases".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 25670

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Parminder J.S. Vig

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Neurology Research Division, Professor of Neurology and Biochemistry, Department of Neurology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 North State Street, Jackson, MS 39216, USA
Interests: neurodegenerative diseases; viral infections; West Nile and ZIKA virus; drug/peptide delivery; neuron-glia interaction; calcium binding proteins
Prof. Dr. Fengwei Bai

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
Interests: flavivirus; mosquito transmitted virus; antiviral; vaccine; viral pathogenesis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

West Nile virus (WNV) is the most common mosquito-borne virus in North America. WNV can enter the central nervous system (CNS) and cause WN neuroinvasive disease (WNND) with less understood long term consequences. WNND includes syndromes of meningitis, encephalitis, and acute flaccid paralysis/poliomyelitis. WNND is mostly diagnosed by the presence of WNV-specific IgM antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid of WNV-infected patients. An association between the WN infection and myasthenia gravis was recently observed in patients long after they recovered from WNND and no prior history of myasthenia gravis. The exact reason for the long-term lingering symptoms after WNV infection are still not well characterized. Therefore, we would like to encourage submission of articles to this special issue, which will cover recent advances in understanding the mechanisms of WNV invasion/infection and neurodegeneration in the CNS, the cause of WNND and reasons for lingering neurological symptoms. Identification of novel therapeutic drugs/peptides, which can suppress the pathologic phenotype is important, articles on this topic are also welcome.

Dr. Parminder J.S. Vig
Dr. Fengwei Bai
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Vaccines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • West Nile virus
  • neuroinvasion
  • neurodegeneration
  • therapeutic peptides
  • immune response

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 293 KiB  
Article
In-Depth Analysis of Genetic Variation Associated with Severe West Nile Viral Disease
by Megan E. Cahill, Mark Loeb, Andrew T. Dewan and Ruth R. Montgomery
Vaccines 2020, 8(4), 744; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines8040744 - 08 Dec 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1699
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus which causes symptomatic disease in a minority of infected humans. To identify novel genetic variants associated with severe disease, we utilized data from an existing case-control study of WNV and included population controls for an [...] Read more.
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus which causes symptomatic disease in a minority of infected humans. To identify novel genetic variants associated with severe disease, we utilized data from an existing case-control study of WNV and included population controls for an expanded analysis. We conducted imputation and gene-gene interaction analysis in the largest and most comprehensive genetic study conducted to date for West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND). Within the imputed West Nile virus dataset (severe cases n = 381 and asymptomatic/mild controls = 441), we found novel loci within the MCF.2 Cell Line Derived Transforming Sequence Like (MCF2L) gene (rs9549655 and rs2297192) through the individual loci analyses, although none reached statistical significance. Incorporating population controls from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study on Aging (n = 9012) did not identify additional novel variants, a possible reflection of the cohort’s inclusion of individuals who could develop mild or severe WNV disease upon infection. Many of the top gene-gene interaction results were intergenic, with currently undefined biological roles, highlighting the need for further investigation into these regions and other identified gene targets in severe WNND. Further studies including larger sample sizes and more diverse populations reflective of those at risk are needed to fully understand the genetic architecture of severe WNDD and provide guidance on viable targets for therapeutic and vaccine development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue West Nile Virus Disease)
23 pages, 2624 KiB  
Article
Pathogenicity of West Nile Virus Lineage 1 to German Poultry
by Cora M. Holicki, Friederike Michel, Ana Vasić, Christine Fast, Martin Eiden, Cristian Răileanu, Helge Kampen, Doreen Werner, Martin H. Groschup and Ute Ziegler
Vaccines 2020, 8(3), 507; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines8030507 - 05 Sep 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3676
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus that originates from Africa and at present causes neurological disease in birds, horses, and humans all around the globe. As West Nile fever is an important zoonosis, the role of free-ranging domestic poultry as a [...] Read more.
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus that originates from Africa and at present causes neurological disease in birds, horses, and humans all around the globe. As West Nile fever is an important zoonosis, the role of free-ranging domestic poultry as a source of infection for humans should be evaluated. This study examined the pathogenicity of an Italian WNV lineage 1 strain for domestic poultry (chickens, ducks, and geese) held in Germany. All three species were subcutaneously injected with WNV, and the most susceptible species was also inoculated via mosquito bite. All species developed various degrees of viremia, viral shedding (oropharyngeal and cloacal), virus accumulation, and pathomorphological lesions. Geese were most susceptible, displaying the highest viremia levels. The tested waterfowl, geese, and especially ducks proved to be ideal sentinel species for WNV due to their high antibody levels and relatively low blood viral loads. None of the three poultry species can function as a reservoir/amplifying host for WNV, as their viremia levels most likely do not suffice to infect feeding mosquitoes. Due to the recent appearance of WNV in Germany, future pathogenicity studies should also include local virus strains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue West Nile Virus Disease)
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Review

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12 pages, 1496 KiB  
Review
The Roles of Osteopontin in the Pathogenesis of West Nile Encephalitis
by Farzana Nazneen and Fengwei Bai
Vaccines 2020, 8(4), 748; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines8040748 - 09 Dec 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2328
Abstract
Osteopontin (OPN), a multifunctional protein encoded by the secreted phosphoprotein-1 (Spp-1) gene in humans, plays important roles in a variety of physiological conditions, such as biomineralization, bone remodeling and immune functions. OPN also has significant roles in the pathogenesis of autoimmune, allergy and [...] Read more.
Osteopontin (OPN), a multifunctional protein encoded by the secreted phosphoprotein-1 (Spp-1) gene in humans, plays important roles in a variety of physiological conditions, such as biomineralization, bone remodeling and immune functions. OPN also has significant roles in the pathogenesis of autoimmune, allergy and inflammatory diseases, as well as bacterial, fungal and viral infections. West Nile virus (WNV), a mosquito-transmitted flavivirus, is the leading agent for viral encephalitis in North America. Recent progress has been made in understanding both the biological functions of OPN and the pathogenesis of WNV. In this review article, we have summarized the current understanding of the biology of OPN and its vital roles in the pathogenesis of WNV encephalitis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue West Nile Virus Disease)
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9 pages, 5448 KiB  
Review
Ocular Manifestations of West Nile Virus
by Antoine Rousseau, Oscar Haigh, Imen Ksiaa, Moncef Khairallah and Marc Labetoulle
Vaccines 2020, 8(4), 641; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines8040641 - 02 Nov 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2929
Abstract
Ocular manifestations are a feature of West Nile virus infection. They mostly occur in association with severe neuroinvasive disease. Linear chorioretinitis is suggestive of the diagnosis and may raise diagnostic suspicion when associated with evocative systemic signs, and in an epidemic context. Various [...] Read more.
Ocular manifestations are a feature of West Nile virus infection. They mostly occur in association with severe neuroinvasive disease. Linear chorioretinitis is suggestive of the diagnosis and may raise diagnostic suspicion when associated with evocative systemic signs, and in an epidemic context. Various other less specific inflammatory ocular manifestations have been reported, including anterior uveitis, occlusive retinal vasculitis, optic neuritis, and diplopia. The pathophysiology of ocular disease remains unclear, but it reflects the neuroinvasiveness of the disease. Although ocular involvement most often resolves without visual sequelae, some patients may have permanent loss of vision, adding to the need for the development of a specific treatment and/or vaccines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue West Nile Virus Disease)
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31 pages, 1494 KiB  
Review
The Role of Birds of Prey in West Nile Virus Epidemiology
by Beatriz Vidaña, Núria Busquets, Sebastian Napp, Elisa Pérez-Ramírez, Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Clavero and Nicholas Johnson
Vaccines 2020, 8(3), 550; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines8030550 - 21 Sep 2020
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 6139
Abstract
Reported human cases of West Nile virus (WNV) in Europe increased dramatically in 2018. Lineage 1 strains had been circulating in Euro-Mediterranean countries since the early 1990s. The subsequent introduction of WNV lineage 2 has been responsible for the remarkable upsurge of European [...] Read more.
Reported human cases of West Nile virus (WNV) in Europe increased dramatically in 2018. Lineage 1 strains had been circulating in Euro-Mediterranean countries since the early 1990s. The subsequent introduction of WNV lineage 2 has been responsible for the remarkable upsurge of European WNV outbreaks since 2004, including the dramatic increase in human cases observed since 2018. The virus exists in a natural cycle between mosquitoes and wild birds, with humans and horses acting as dead-end hosts. As the key vertebrate hosts in the transmission cycle of WNV, avian species have been the focus of surveillance across many countries. Raptors appear particularly susceptible to WNV infection, resulting in higher prevalence, and in some cases exhibiting neurological signs that lead to the death of the animal. In addition, birds of prey are known to play an important role as WNV reservoir and potentially amplifying hosts of infection. Importantly, raptor higher susceptibility/prevalence may indicate infection through predation of infected prey. Consequently, they are considered important target species when designing cost-effective surveillance for monitoring both seasonal WNV circulation in endemic countries and its emergence into new areas, where migrating raptors may play a critical role in virus introduction. This review summarizes the different aspects of the current knowledge of WNV infection in birds of prey and evaluates their role in the evolution of the epizootic that is spreading throughout Europe. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue West Nile Virus Disease)
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14 pages, 1524 KiB  
Review
The Role of Microglia during West Nile Virus Infection of the Central Nervous System
by Sarah Stonedahl, Penny Clarke and Kenneth L. Tyler
Vaccines 2020, 8(3), 485; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines8030485 - 28 Aug 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3726
Abstract
Encephalitis resulting from viral infections is a major cause of hospitalization and death worldwide. West Nile Virus (WNV) is a substantial health concern as it is one of the leading causes of viral encephalitis in the United States today. WNV infiltrates the central [...] Read more.
Encephalitis resulting from viral infections is a major cause of hospitalization and death worldwide. West Nile Virus (WNV) is a substantial health concern as it is one of the leading causes of viral encephalitis in the United States today. WNV infiltrates the central nervous system (CNS), where it directly infects neurons and induces neuronal cell death, in part, via activation of caspase 3-mediated apoptosis. WNV infection also induces neuroinflammation characterized by activation of innate immune cells, including microglia and astrocytes, production of inflammatory cytokines, breakdown of the blood-brain barrier, and infiltration of peripheral leukocytes. Microglia are the resident immune cells of the brain and monitor the CNS for signs of injury or pathogens. Following infection with WNV, microglia exhibit a change in morphology consistent with activation and are associated with increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines. Recent research has focused on deciphering the role of microglia during WNV encephalitis. Microglia play a protective role during infections by limiting viral growth and reducing mortality in mice. However, it also appears that activated microglia are triggered by T cells to mediate synaptic elimination at late times during infection, which may contribute to long-term neurological deficits following a neuroinvasive WNV infection. This review will discuss the important role of microglia in the pathogenesis of a neuroinvasive WNV infection. Knowledge of the precise role of microglia during a WNV infection may lead to a greater ability to treat and manage WNV encephalitis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue West Nile Virus Disease)
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28 pages, 1497 KiB  
Review
West Nile Virus Restriction in Mosquito and Human Cells: A Virus under Confinement
by Marie-France Martin and Sébastien Nisole
Vaccines 2020, 8(2), 256; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/vaccines8020256 - 29 May 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4503
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging neurotropic flavivirus that naturally circulates between mosquitoes and birds. However, WNV has a broad host range and can be transmitted from mosquitoes to several mammalian species, including humans, through infected saliva during a blood meal. Although [...] Read more.
West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging neurotropic flavivirus that naturally circulates between mosquitoes and birds. However, WNV has a broad host range and can be transmitted from mosquitoes to several mammalian species, including humans, through infected saliva during a blood meal. Although WNV infections are mostly asymptomatic, 20% to 30% of cases are symptomatic and can occasionally lead to severe symptoms, including fatal meningitis or encephalitis. Over the past decades, WNV-carrying mosquitoes have become increasingly widespread across new regions, including North America and Europe, which constitutes a public health concern. Nevertheless, mosquito and human innate immune defenses can detect WNV infection and induce the expression of antiviral effectors, so-called viral restriction factors, to control viral propagation. Conversely, WNV has developed countermeasures to escape these host defenses, thus establishing a constant arms race between the virus and its hosts. Our review intends to cover most of the current knowledge on viral restriction factors as well as WNV evasion strategies in mosquito and human cells in order to bring an updated overview on WNV–host interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue West Nile Virus Disease)
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