Characteristics of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons at A Roadside Air Pollution Monitoring Station in Kanazawa, Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. PM2.5 Sampling
2.2. Chemicals
2.3. Pretreatment and analysis of PAHs and NPAHs
2.4. Quality Control and Quality Assurance
2.5. Health Risk Assessment
2.6. Meteorological Data
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Concentrations of PM2.5, PAHs and NPAHs
3.2. Composition of PAHs and NPAHs
3.3. Effect of Meteorological Conditions
3.4. Concentration ratios of PAHs and NPAHs
3.5. Carcinogenic Risk Assessment
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Heal, M.R.; Kumar, P.; Harrison, R.M. Particles, Air quality, policy and health. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2015, 41, 6606–6630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pöschl, U. Atmospheric aerosols: Composition, transformation, climate and health effects. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 7520–7540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brunekreef, B.; Holgate, S.T. Air pollution and health. Lancet 2002, 360, 1233–1242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tang, N.; Suzuki, G.; Morisaki, H.; Tokuda, T.; Yang, X.; Zhao, L.; Lin, J.; Kameda, T.; Toriba, A.; Hayakawa, K. Atmospheric behaviors of particulate-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Beijing, China from 2004 to 2010. Atmos. Environ. 2017, 152, 354–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hayakawa, K. Environmental behaviors and toxicities of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2016, 64, 83–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- IARC. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Man; International Agency for Research on Cancer: Lyon, France, 2015; Available online: https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19732703314 (accessed on 12 December 2019).
- Zhang, L.L.; Tokuda, T.; Yang, L.; Zhou, Q.Y.; Zhang, X.; Xing, W.L.; Wu, Q.; Zhou, Z.J.; Chen, R.J.; Kameda, T.; et al. Characteristics and health risks of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at urban and suburban elementary schools in Shanghai, China. Asian, J. Atmospheric Environ. 2019, 13, 266–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, Z.; Kamens, R.M. An experimental technique for studying heterogeneous reactions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on particle surfaces. J. Atmos. Chem. 1991, 12, 137–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finlayson-Pitts, B.J.; Pitts, J.N., Jr. Tropospheric air pollution: Ozone, airborne toxics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and particles. Science 1997, 276, 1045–1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhang, L.L.; Yang, L.; Zhou, Q.Y.; Zhang, X.; Xing, W.L.; Wei, Y.J.; Hu, M.; Zhao, L.X.; Toriba, A.; Hayakawa, K.; et al. Size distribution of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fresh combustion smoke and ambient air: A review. J. Environ. Sci (China). 2020, 88, 370–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.L.; Morisaki, H.; Wei, Y.J.; Li, Z.G.; Yang, L.; Zhou, Q.Y.; Zhang, X.; Xing, W.L.; Hu, M.; Shima, M.; et al. PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons inside and outside a primary school classroom in Beijing: Concentration, composition, and inhalation cancer risk. Sci. Total. Environ. 2020, 705, 135840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miguel, A.H.; Kirchstetter, T.W.; Harley, R.A.; Hering, S.V. On-road emissions of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and black carbon from gasoline and diesel vehicles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998, 32, 450–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bourotte, C.; Forti, M.C.; Taniguchi, S.; Bícego, M.C.; Lotufo, P.A. A wintertime study of PAHs in fine and coarse aerosols in São Paulo city, Brazil. Atmos. Environ. 2005, 39, 3799–3811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dvorská, A.; Lammel, G.; Klánová, J. Use of diagnostic ratios for studying source apportionment and reactivity of ambient polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons over central Europe. Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45, 420–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Japan Society of Atmospheric Environment. History of Atmospheric Environments in Japan; Japan Society of Atmospheric Environment: Tokyo, Japan, 2007.
- Tang, N.; Hattori, T.; Taga, R.; Igarashi, K.; Yang, X.; Tamura, K.; Kakimoto, H.; Mishukov, V.F.; Toriba, A.; Kizu, R.; et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air particulates and their relationship to emission sources in the Pan–Japan Sea countries. Atmos. Environ. 2005, 39, 5817–5826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayakawa, K.; Tang, N.; Nagato, E.G.; Toriba, A.; Sakai, S.; Kano, F.; Goto, S.; Endo, K.; Arashidani, H.; Kamimoto, H. Long term trends in atmospheric concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A study of Japanese cities from 1997 to 2014. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 233, 474–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ministry of Land Infrastructure Transport and Tourism. Regulation of Emission Gas from cars. Available online: http://www.mlit.go.jp/jidosha/jidosha/jidosha-kt10_000000.html (accessed on 12 December 2019).
- Hama, H.; Tokuda, T.; Izaki, A.; Ohno, T.; Watanabe, Y.; Kanda, T.; Tang, N.; Kameda, T.; Toriba, A.; Hayakawa, K. Variation in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in airborne particulates collected in unban Kanazawa, Japan, in last 12 years. J. Japan. Soc. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 47, 1–8. [Google Scholar]
- Tang, N.; Tabata, M.; Mishukov, V.F.; Sergineko, V.; Toriba, A.; Kizu, R.; Hayakawa, K. Comparison of atmospheric nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Vladivostok, Kanazawa and Toyama. J. Health Sci. 2002, 48, 30–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hao, X.; Zhang, X.; Cao, X.; Shen, X.; Shi, J.; Yao, Z. Characterization and carcinogenic risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic and nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in exhaust emission from gasoline passenger cars using on-road measurements in Beijing, China. Sci. Total. Environ. 2018, 645, 347–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cao, X.; Hao, X.; Shen, X.; Jiang, X.; Wu, B.; Yao, Z. Emission characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from diesel trucks based on on-road measurements. Atmos. Environ. 2017, 148, 190–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hayakawa, K.; Tang, N.; Morisaki, H.; Toriba, A.; Akutagawa, T.; Sakai, S. Atmospheric polycyclic and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an iron-manufacturing city. Asian. J. Atmos. Environ. 2016, 10, 90–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- OEHHA. Benzo[a]pyrene as A Toxic Air Contaminant. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/toxics/id/summary/bap.pdf (accessed on 12 December 2019).
- Nisbet, I.C.T.; Lagoy, P.K. Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 1992, 16, 290–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- RIDEM. Rhode Island Air Toxics Guideline. State of Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management. 2008. Available online: http://www.dem.ri.gov/programs/benviron/air/pdf/airtoxgl.pdf (accessed on 18 December 2019).
- Yang, X.-Y.; Okada, Y.; Tang, N.; Matsunaga, S.; Tamura, K.; Lin, J.M.; Kameda, T.; Toriba, A.; Hayakawa, K. Long-range transport of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from china to Japan. Atmos. Environ. 2007, 41, 2710–2718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.L.; Morisaki, H.; Wei, Y.; Li, Z.; Yang, L.; Zhou, Q.Y.; Zhang, X.; Xing, W.L.; Hu, M.; Shima, M.; et al. Characteristics of air pollutants inside and outside a primary school classroom in Beijing and respiratory health impact on children. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 255, 113147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Araki, Y.; Tang, N.; Ohno, M.; Kameda, T.; Toriba, A.; Hayakawa, K. Analysis of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in gas/particle phases separately collected by a high-volume air sampler equipped with a column packed with XAD-4 resin. J. Health. Sci. 2009, 55, 77–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Karavalakis, G.; Fontaras, G.; Ampatzoglou, D.; Kousoulidou, M.; Stournas, S.; Samaras, Z.; Bakeas, E. Effects of low concentration biodiesel blends application on modern passenger cars. Part 3: Impact on PAH, nitro-PAH, and oxy-PAH emissions. Environ. Pollut. 2010, 158, 1584–1594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tobiszewski, M.; Namieśnik, J. PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. Environ. Pollut. 2012, 162, 110–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.F.; Latif, M.T.; Lim, C.H.; Amil, N.; Jaafar, S.A.; Dominick, D.; Nadzir, M.S.M.; Sahani, M.; Tahir, N.M. Seasonal effect and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5. Atmos. Environ. 2015, 106, 178–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yunker, M.B.; Macdonald, R.W.; Vingarzan, R.; Mitchell, R.H.; Goyette, D.; Sylvestre, S. PAHs in the Fraser River basin: A critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Org. Geochem. 2002, 33, 489–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rogge, W.F.; Hildemann, L.M.; Mazurek, M.A.; Cass, G.R.; Simoneit, B.R. Sources of fine organic aerosol. 2. Noncatalyst and catalyst-equipped automobiles and heavy-duty diesel trucks. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1993, 27, 636–651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simick, M.F.; Eisenreich, S.; Lioy, P.J. Source apportionment and source/sink relationships of PAHs in the coastal atmosphere of Chicago and Lake Michigan. Atmos. Environ. 1999, 33, 5071–5079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chien, C.; Xu, Z.; Molly, S. Topics in integrated circuits for communications: Series editorial. Ieee. Commun. Mag. 2010, 48, 74–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Luo, Y.; Zhu, L.; Fang, J.; Zhuang, Z.; Guan, C.; Xia, C.; Xie, X.; Huang, Z. Size distribution, chemical composition and oxidation reactivity of particulate matter from gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine fueled with ethanol-gasoline fuel. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2015, 89, 647–655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, T.; Huang, Z.; Cheung, C.S.; Ma, J. Size distribution of EC, OC and particle-phase PAHs emissions from a diesel engine fueled with three fuels. Sci. Total. Environ. 2012, 438, 33–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dvorská, A.; Komprdová, K.; Lammel, G.; Klánová, J.; Plachá, H. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in background air in central Europe—Seasonal levels and limitations for source apportionment. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 46, 147–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalisa, E.; Nagato, E.; Bizuru, E.; Lee, K.; Tang, N.; Pointing, S.; Hayakawa, K.; Archer, S.; Lacap-Bugler, D. Pollution characteristics and risk assessment of ambient PM2.5-bound PAHs and NPAHs in typical Japanese and New Zealand cities and rural sites. Atoms. Pollut. Res. 2019, 10, 1396–1403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, L.; Suzuki, G.; Zhang, L.; Zhou, Q.; Zhang, X.; Xing, W.; Shima, M.; Yoda, Y.; Nakatsubo, R.; Hiraki, T.; et al. The characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different emission source areas in Shenyang, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2019, 16, 2817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Compound | T | P | RH | WS |
---|---|---|---|---|
PAHs | −0.778 ** | 0.037 | 0.085 | 0.059 |
NPAHs | −0.626 ** | 0.130 | 0.325 | −0.300 |
Emission Source | (BaP)/(BgPe) | (IDP)/((IDP)+(BgPe)) |
---|---|---|
Gasoline vehicles | 0.3–0.4 | 0.2–0.5 |
Diesel vehicles | 0.46–0.81 | 0.35–0.70 |
Vehicle exhaust | 0.3–0.78 | |
Season | ||
Spring | 0.42–1.02 (0.63) | 0.28–0.47 (0.37) |
Summer | 0.19–0.68 (0.49) | 0.34–0.43 (0.39) |
Autumn | 0.45–0.61 (0.56) | 0.39–0.45 (0.43) |
Winter | 0.34–0.51 (0.48) | 0.39–0.49 (0.43) |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Xing, W.; Zhang, L.; Yang, L.; Zhou, Q.; Zhang, X.; Toriba, A.; Hayakawa, K.; Tang, N. Characteristics of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons at A Roadside Air Pollution Monitoring Station in Kanazawa, Japan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 805. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17030805
Xing W, Zhang L, Yang L, Zhou Q, Zhang X, Toriba A, Hayakawa K, Tang N. Characteristics of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons at A Roadside Air Pollution Monitoring Station in Kanazawa, Japan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(3):805. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17030805
Chicago/Turabian StyleXing, Wanli, Lulu Zhang, Lu Yang, Quanyu Zhou, Xuan Zhang, Akira Toriba, Kazuichi Hayakawa, and Ning Tang. 2020. "Characteristics of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons at A Roadside Air Pollution Monitoring Station in Kanazawa, Japan" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 3: 805. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17030805