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Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment

A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2019) | Viewed by 70173

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Kazuichi Hayakawa

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Nature and Environmental Technology, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
Interests: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs); atmospheric behavior; toxification
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Nobuo Suzuki

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Noto Marine Laboratory, Division of Marine Environmental Studies, Institute of Nature and Environmental Technology, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
Interests: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; fish calcium metabolism; toxicological study; marine environmental biology

Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as benzo[a]pyrene and nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs) such as 1-nitropyrene are ubiquitous environmental organic pollutants. Atmospheric PAHs and NPAHs originate primarily from the imperfect combustion of organic matter, with common sources including coal, oil, and biomass combustion. In addition, PAHs and their branched derivatives are contained in petroleum and are therefore problematic components of oil spills in marine ecosystems. Many PAHs and NPAHs are carcinogenic and/or mutagenic. Recently, the World Health Organization categorized PM2.5 as a Group 1 contaminant (carcinogenic to humans) because of the PAHs and NPAHs contained within. Moreover, metabolites of PAHs and NPAHs, such as the hydroxylated and quinoid derivatives, act on the endocrine system while also initiating reactive oxygen species production. Therefore, it is important to further investigate how these components of PM2.5 may impact organisms at the cellular and biochemical levels. Many world regions, such as East Asia, are highly polluted with PAHs and NPAHs, given the recent rise in economic and industrial activity. However, the extent of pollution differs greatly depending on the energy sources used such as oil, coal, biomass, or natural gas. Therefore, understanding the linkage between source and the types of PAH congeners produced is an important first step in addressing these pollution problems. Papers addressing these topics are invited for this Special Issue.

Prof. Dr. Kazuichi Hayakawa
Prof. Dr. Nobuo Suzuki
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
  • Nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
  • Oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
  • Environmental pollution
  • PM2.5
  • Atmosphere
  • Marine
  • Toxicity
  • Chemical reaction

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Published Papers (17 papers)

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18 pages, 1203 KiB  
Article
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Estuaries of Two Rivers of the Sea of Japan
by Tatiana Chizhova, Yuliya Koudryashova, Natalia Prokuda, Pavel Tishchenko and Kazuichi Hayakawa
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(17), 6019; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17176019 - 19 Aug 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2429
Abstract
The seasonal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) variability was studied in the estuaries of the Partizanskaya River and the Tumen River, the largest transboundary river of the Sea of Japan. The PAH levels were generally low over the year; however, the PAH concentrations increased [...] Read more.
The seasonal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) variability was studied in the estuaries of the Partizanskaya River and the Tumen River, the largest transboundary river of the Sea of Japan. The PAH levels were generally low over the year; however, the PAH concentrations increased according to one of two seasonal trends, which were either an increase in PAHs during the cold period, influenced by heating, or a PAH enrichment during the wet period due to higher run-off inputs. The major PAH source was the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass, but a minor input of petrogenic PAHs in some seasons was observed. Higher PAH concentrations were observed in fresh and brackish water compared to the saline waters in the Tumen River estuary, while the PAH concentrations in both types of water were similar in the Partizanskaya River estuary, suggesting different pathways of PAH input into the estuaries. The annual riverine PAH mass flux amounted to 0.028 t/year and 2.5 t/year for the Partizanskaya River and the Tumen River, respectively. The riverine PAH contribution to the coastal water of the Sea of Japan depends on the river discharge rather than the PAH level in the river water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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12 pages, 1102 KiB  
Article
Remediation of 1-Nitropyrene in Soil: A Comparative Study with Pyrene
by Shuo Li, Yatao Huang, Minhui Zhang, Yanchen Gao, Canping Pan, Kailin Deng and Bei Fan
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(6), 1914; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17061914 - 15 Mar 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2419
Abstract
Nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nPAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants, which exhibits higher toxicity than their corresponding parent PAHs (pPAHs). Recent studies demonstrated that the nPAHs could represent major soil pollution, however the remediation of nPAHs has been [...] Read more.
Nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nPAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants, which exhibits higher toxicity than their corresponding parent PAHs (pPAHs). Recent studies demonstrated that the nPAHs could represent major soil pollution, however the remediation of nPAHs has been rarely reported. In this study, biological, physical, and chemical methods have been applied to remove 1-nitropyrene, the model nPAH, in contaminated soil. A comparative study with pyrene has also been investigated and evaluated. The results suggest that the physical method with activated carbon is an efficient and economical approach, removing 88.1% and 78.0% of 1-nitropyrene and pyrene respectively, within one day. The zero-valent ion has a similar removal performance on 1-nitropyrene (83.1%), converting 1-nitropyrene to 1-aminopyrene in soil via chemical reduction and decreasing the mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of 1-nitropyrene. Biological remediation that employs scallion as a plant model can reduce 55.0% of 1-nitropyrene in soil (from 39.6 to 17.8 μg/kg), while 77.9% of pyrene can be removed by plant. This indicates that nPAHs might be more persistent than corresponding pPAHs in soil. It is anticipated that this study could draw public awareness of nitro-derivatives of pPAHs and provide remediation technologies of carcinogenic nPAHs in soil. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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17 pages, 3650 KiB  
Article
Recent Occurrence of PAHs and n-Alkanes in PM2.5 in Seoul, Korea and Characteristics of Their Sources and Toxicity
by Minkyung Kang, Kiae Kim, Narae Choi, Yong Pyo Kim and Ji Yi Lee
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1397; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17041397 - 21 Feb 2020
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3282
Abstract
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and n-alkanes in particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less (PM2.5) were quantified at Seoul, Korea in 2018. The seasonal differences in the total concentration of PAHs and n-Alkanes were clear, where winter showed a [...] Read more.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and n-alkanes in particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less (PM2.5) were quantified at Seoul, Korea in 2018. The seasonal differences in the total concentration of PAHs and n-Alkanes were clear, where winter showed a higher concentration than that of summer. Compared to the PAHs measurements in 2002 at Seoul, the sum of PAHs concentrations in 2018 were reduced from 26.6 to 5.6 ng m−3. Major sources of the observed PAHs and n-alkanes were deduced from various indicators such as diagnostic ratios for PAHs and Cmax, CPI, and WNA (%) indices for n-alkanes. It was found that in winter coal and biomass combustions, and vehicular exhaust were major sources, while, in summer vehicular exhaust was major source. In addition, in winter, major emission sources were located outside of Seoul. The health effect from the recent level of PAHs was estimated and compared to the previous studies observed in Seoul, and it was found that, recently, the toxicity of PAHs in PM2.5 was significantly decreased, except for in the winter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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11 pages, 2837 KiB  
Article
Influence of Benz[a]anthracene on Bone Metabolism and on Liver Metabolism in Nibbler Fish, Girella punctata
by Mohamed I. Zanaty, Niina Sawada, Yoichiro Kitani, Hossam F. Nassar, Hamada M. Mahmoud, Kazuichi Hayakawa, Toshio Sekiguchi, Shouzo Ogiso, Yoshiaki Tabuchi, Makoto Urata, Hajime Matsubara, Yutaka Takeuchi, Atsuhiko Hattori, Ajai K. Srivastav, Thumronk Amornsakun and Nobuo Suzuki
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1391; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17041391 - 21 Feb 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2841
Abstract
It has been reported that spinal deformity was induced in developing fish by the addition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). To examine the mechanism of the disruption of fish bone metabolism, the effect of benz[a]anthracene (BaA), a kind of PAH, on [...] Read more.
It has been reported that spinal deformity was induced in developing fish by the addition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). To examine the mechanism of the disruption of fish bone metabolism, the effect of benz[a]anthracene (BaA), a kind of PAH, on plasma calcium, inorganic phosphorus, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts was investigated in this study. We also measured several plasma components to analyze the toxicity of BaA on other metabolisms. BaA (1 or 10 ng/g body weight) was intraperitoneally injected (four times) into nibbler fish during breeding, for 10 days, and it was indicated, for the first time, that injecting high doses of BaA to nibbler fish induced both hypocalcemia and hypophosphatemia. Furthermore, in the scales of nibbler fish treated with high doses of BaA, both osteoclastic and osteoblastic marker messengerRNA (mRNA) expressions decreased. These results are a cause of disruption of bone metabolism and, perhaps, the induction of spinal deformities. In addition, we found that total protein, metabolic enzymes in the liver, total cholesterol, free cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels significantly decreased in BaA-injected fish. These results indicate that BaA may affect liver diseases and emphasize the importance of prevention of aquatic PAH pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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11 pages, 1700 KiB  
Article
Effect of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on Development of the Ascidian Ciona intestinalis Type A
by Toshio Sekiguchi, Hiroshi Akitaya, Satoshi Nakayama, Takashi Yazawa, Michio Ogasawara, Nobuo Suzuki, Kazuichi Hayakawa and Shuichi Wada
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1340; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17041340 - 19 Feb 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2573
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are pollutants that exert harmful effects on marine invertebrates; however, the molecular mechanism underlying PAH action remains unclear. We investigated the effect of PAHs on the ascidian Ciona intestinalis type A (Ciona robusta). First, the influence of [...] Read more.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are pollutants that exert harmful effects on marine invertebrates; however, the molecular mechanism underlying PAH action remains unclear. We investigated the effect of PAHs on the ascidian Ciona intestinalis type A (Ciona robusta). First, the influence of PAHs on early Ciona development was evaluated. PAHs such as dibenzothiophene, fluorene, and phenanthrene resulted in formation of abnormal larvae. PAH treatment of swimming larva induced malformation in the form of tail regression. Additionally, we observed the Ciona aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ci-AhR) mRNA expression in swimming larva, mid body axis rotation, and early juvenile stages. The time correlation between PAH action and AhR mRNA expression suggested that Ci-AhR could be associated with PAH metabolism. Lastly, we analyzed Ci-AhR mRNA localization in Ciona juveniles. Ci-AhR mRNA was localized in the digestive tract, dorsal tubercle, ganglion, and papillae of the branchial sac, suggesting that Ci-AhR is a candidate for an environmental pollutant sensor and performs a neural function. Our results provide basic knowledge on the biological function of Ci-AhR and PAH activity in marine invertebrates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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13 pages, 3142 KiB  
Article
Levels, Sources and Toxicity Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons at an Island Site in the Gulf of Tonkin
by Xiaoyang Yang, Shijie Liu, Yuanguan Gao, Wenjuan Zhao, Yu Liu, Jingying Mao and Zhaoyu Mo
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1338; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17041338 - 19 Feb 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2134
Abstract
The varying concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at remote islands is an important indicator, demonstrating the contributions from different regional combustion sources. In this study, gaseous and particulate PAHs were measured at Weizhou Island in the Gulf of Tonkin from 15th March [...] Read more.
The varying concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at remote islands is an important indicator, demonstrating the contributions from different regional combustion sources. In this study, gaseous and particulate PAHs were measured at Weizhou Island in the Gulf of Tonkin from 15th March to 14th April, 2015. The concentrations of PAHs ranged from 116.22 to 186.74 ng/m3 and from 40.19 to 61.86 ng/m3 in gas and particulate phase, respectively, which were much higher than those of some remote sites in Asia. Phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene, and chrysene, which were mainly found in diesel vehicle emissions, had relatively high concentrations in both gas and particulate phases. According to the comprehensive results of back trajectory cluster analysis and diagnostic ratios, the local vessel emission was probably the main source of PAHs, which was much more important than the coal and biomass combustion sources from remoter regions. The toxicities represented by ∑PAH7, benzo(a)pyrene-equivalent carcinogenic power, and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-based total toxicity potency are much higher in particulate phase than those in gas phase. However, the toxicities of gas phase should not be neglected from the point of view of indirect-acting mutagenicities due to the high contribution of fluoranthene. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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15 pages, 1750 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Fluctuation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Aerosol Genotoxicity in Long-Range Transported Air Mass Observed at the Western End of Japan
by Takashi Kubo, Wenzhi Bai, Masaki Nagae and Yuji Takao
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1210; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17041210 - 13 Feb 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2324
Abstract
In order to clarify the level transboundary air pollution caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and genotoxic substances, aerosols were collected from forest and suburban sites in Nagasaki, west Japan, for 6 years. The PAH concentration was measured, and the genotoxicity of the [...] Read more.
In order to clarify the level transboundary air pollution caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and genotoxic substances, aerosols were collected from forest and suburban sites in Nagasaki, west Japan, for 6 years. The PAH concentration was measured, and the genotoxicity of the substances were evaluated using the umu test. The results showed no notable trends in the concentration or toxicity of either sites throughout the study period. The suburban and forest sites shared similar seasonal fluctuation patterns and quantitative values, suggesting that the western end of Japan might be affected by long-range transported pollutants, especially in winter. PAH concentration and genotoxicity showed the same seasonal patterns of increased levels in winter and lower levels in summer. This suggests that PAHs and genotoxic substances were correlated and share common sources. Back trajectory and source analyses were conducted using the diagnostic ratios of PAHs. It was predicted that air pollution by PAHs at the forest site arise predominantly as a result of biomass or coal combustion in continental regions, such as northern parts of China and the Korean Peninsula. This is particularly expected in winter. Therefore, genotoxic substances would also be strongly influenced by transboundary pollution from the continental region. In addition, it was estimated that the contribution of transboundary PAH pollution could reach 70% at the suburban site in winter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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16 pages, 2689 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Common Air Pollutants at Wajima, a Remote Background Site in Japan
by Xuan Zhang, Lulu Zhang, Lu Yang, Quanyu Zhou, Wanli Xing, Akira Toriba, Kazuichi Hayakawa, Yongjie Wei and Ning Tang
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 957; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17030957 - 04 Feb 2020
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3816
Abstract
Background: Background sites are mainly affected by long-range-transported air pollutants, resulting in potential adverse effects on local atmospheric environments. A 4–5 year observational study was conducted to illustrate the air pollution profile at the Kanazawa University Wajima air monitoring station (KUWAMS), an [...] Read more.
Background: Background sites are mainly affected by long-range-transported air pollutants, resulting in potential adverse effects on local atmospheric environments. A 4–5 year observational study was conducted to illustrate the air pollution profile at the Kanazawa University Wajima air monitoring station (KUWAMS), an ideal remote background site in Japan. Methods: Nine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the particulate phase and various air pollutants were continuously monitored for 4–5 years. Diagnostic ratios of PAHs and back-trajectory analysis were applied to trace the possible sources of the air pollutants collected at the sampling site. Results: The atmospheric concentration of PAHs in the atmosphere at the site decreased from 2014 to 2019, benefit from the predominant air pollution control policy in China and Japan. Common air pollutants including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone, methane (CH4), and non-methane hydrocarbon (NMHC) were detected in low concentrations from 2016 to 2019, while ozone (O3) and particulate matter (PM2.5, PM with a diameter less than 2.5 μm) were present in high levels that exceeded the Japanese standards. Most air pollutants peaked in spring and showed evident diurnal variations in spring and summer. Conclusions: This is the first study to clarify the atmospheric behaviors of multiple air pollutants at a background site in Japan. Significant external air pollutant impact and unneglectable air pollution were demonstrated at KUWAMS, indicating the importance of studying atmospheric pollution at remote sites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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15 pages, 3778 KiB  
Article
Interannual Survey on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Seawater of North Nanao Bay, Ishikawa, Japan, from 2015 to 2018: Sources, Pathways and Ecological Risk Assessment
by Rodrigo Mundo, Tetsuya Matsunaka, Hisanori Iwai, Shouzo Ogiso, Nobuo Suzuki, Ning Tang, Kazuichi Hayakawa and Seiya Nagao
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 904; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17030904 - 01 Feb 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2710
Abstract
To improve the understanding of the emission sources and pathways of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the coastal environments of remote areas, their particulate and dissolved concentrations were analyzed on a monthly basis from 2015 to 2018 in surface waters of Nanao Bay, [...] Read more.
To improve the understanding of the emission sources and pathways of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the coastal environments of remote areas, their particulate and dissolved concentrations were analyzed on a monthly basis from 2015 to 2018 in surface waters of Nanao Bay, Japan. The concentration of the targeted 13 species of PAHs on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) priority pollutant list in dissolved and particle phases were separately analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to a fluorescence detector. Particulate and dissolved PAHs had average concentrations of 0.72 ng∙L−1 and 0.95 ng∙L−1, respectively. While most of the samples were lower than 1 ng∙L−1, abnormally high levels up to 10 ng∙L−1 were observed in the winter of 2017–2018 for particulate PAHs. Based on the isomer ratios of Flu to Flu plus Pyr, it was possible to determine that the pyrogenic loads were greater than the petrogenic loads in all but four out of 86 samples. The predominant environmental pathway for PAHs in winter was determined to be long-range atmospheric transportation fed by the East Asian winter monsoon, while for the summer, local sources were more relevant. By the risk quotients method, it was determined that PAHs in surface seawater presented a very low risk to marine life during the interannual survey. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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13 pages, 2081 KiB  
Article
Temporal Variations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Seawater at Tsukumo Bay, Noto Peninsula, Japan, during 2014–2018
by Tetsuya Matsunaka, Seiya Nagao, Mutsuo Inoue, Rodrigo Mundo, Ning Tang, Nobuo Suzuki, Shouzo Ogiso and Kazuichi Hayakawa
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 873; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17030873 - 30 Jan 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2824 | Retraction
Abstract
Concentrations of phase-partitioning 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in seawater were investigated in the Tsukumo Bay, Noto Peninsula, Japan, during 2014–2018, to improve the understanding of the environmental behavior of PAHs in the coastal areas of the Japan Sea. Total PAH (particulate plus [...] Read more.
Concentrations of phase-partitioning 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in seawater were investigated in the Tsukumo Bay, Noto Peninsula, Japan, during 2014–2018, to improve the understanding of the environmental behavior of PAHs in the coastal areas of the Japan Sea. Total PAH (particulate plus dissolved) concentrations in surface seawater were in the range 0.24–2.20 ng L−1 (mean 0.89 ng L−1), an order of magnitude lower than the mean values observed in the Japan Sea in 2008 and 2010. Although the PAH contamination levels during 2014–2018 were significantly lower than those in the East China Sea, the levels increased from 2014 to 2017 and were maintained at the higher level during 2017–2018. The main sources of particulate and dissolved PAHs during 2014–2018 were combustion products, of which the former were more influenced by liquid fossil-fuel combustion and the latter by biomass or coal combustion. The increase in particulate PAH concentrations in October–December during 2014–2018 was due to the impact of PAH-rich airmasses transported from the East Asian landmass in the northwesterly winter monsoon winds. The increase in dissolved PAH levels during July–September in 2014, 2016, 2017, and 2018 indicates that the Tsukumo Bay is possibly impacted by the PAH-rich summer continental shelf water transported by the Coastal Branch of the Tsushima Warm Current, which flows into the Japan Sea from the East China Sea. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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11 pages, 1927 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of PM2.5-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons at A Roadside Air Pollution Monitoring Station in Kanazawa, Japan
by Wanli Xing, Lulu Zhang, Lu Yang, Quanyu Zhou, Xuan Zhang, Akira Toriba, Kazuichi Hayakawa and Ning Tang
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(3), 805; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17030805 - 28 Jan 2020
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 3735
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitro-PAHs (NPAHs) in PM2.5 samples were collected at a roadside monitoring station in Kanazawa, Japan, in every season from 2017 to 2018. Nine PAHs and five NPAHs were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and [...] Read more.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitro-PAHs (NPAHs) in PM2.5 samples were collected at a roadside monitoring station in Kanazawa, Japan, in every season from 2017 to 2018. Nine PAHs and five NPAHs were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and chemiluminescence detection, respectively. The mean concentrations of PAHs and NPAHs were highest in winter and lowest in summer. Fluoranthene and pyrene were the dominant PAHs and 1-nitropyrene was the dominant NPAH in all seasons, and these compounds were mainly emitted by diesel vehicles. The concentration ratio of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) to benzo(ghi)perylene (BgPe) ((BaP)/(BgPe)) and of indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene (IDP) to the sum of IDP and benzo(ghi)perylene (BgPe) ((IDP)/((IDP)+(BgPe0) might still be useful indicators for identifying traffic emission sources today. Moreover, our results showed that the carcinogenic risk in all seasons was below the acceptable limit set by the WHO. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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12 pages, 3959 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Trends in Urban Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitropolycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: China, Russia, and Korea from 1999 to 2014
by Kazuichi Hayakawa, Ning Tang, Edward Nagato, Akira Toriba, Jin-Min Lin, Lixia Zhao, Zhijun Zhou, Wu Qing, Xiaoyang Yang, Vassily Mishukov, Andrey Neroda and Hae-Young Chung
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(2), 431; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17020431 - 08 Jan 2020
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3289
Abstract
Total suspended particulate matter (TSP) was collected during the summer and winter in five cities in China (Shenyang, Beijing, and Shanghai), Russia (Vladivostok), and Korea (Busan) from 1997 to 2014. Nine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with four to six rings, including pyrene (Pyr) [...] Read more.
Total suspended particulate matter (TSP) was collected during the summer and winter in five cities in China (Shenyang, Beijing, and Shanghai), Russia (Vladivostok), and Korea (Busan) from 1997 to 2014. Nine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with four to six rings, including pyrene (Pyr) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Two nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs), 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) and 6-nitrobenzo[a]pyrene (6-NBaP), were also determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with online reduction/chemiluminescence detection. Two Chinese cities, Beijing and Shenyang, showed very high concentrations of total PAHs (ΣPAH) and total NPAHs (ΣNPAH) with a large seasonal difference (winter > summer), although the concentrations decreased over time. In both cities, maximum mean concentrations of ΣPAH over 200 ng m−3 were observed in the winter. In Beijing, an increase in the ΣPAH concentration was observed in the winter of 2010, which was after the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. The [1-NP]/[Pyr] ratio, a diagnostic parameter for source, was smaller in the winter than in the summer over the monitoring period, suggesting a large contribution of coal heating systems in the winter. In Vladivostok, concentrations of ΣPAH and ΣNPAH were lower than in the above two Chinese cities. The [1-NP]/[Pyr] ratio was larger than in the above Chinese cities even in the winter, suggesting that the contribution of coal combustion facilities, such as power plants for heating, was not very large. In Shanghai and Busan, concentrations of ΣPAH and ΣNPAH were much lower than in the above three cities. At the beginning of the monitoring periods, the [1-NP]/[Pyr] ratios, which were as large as those of Japanese commercial cities, suggested a large contribution from automobiles. After that, the contribution of automobiles decreased gradually. However, BaP concentrations were still over 1 ng m−3 in all cities monitored in China, Russia, and Korea, suggesting that the urban air pollution of PAHs and NPAHs in these regions should not be ignored. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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22 pages, 16551 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Spatial Distribution of Soil PAHs and their Relationship with Anthropogenic Activities at a National Scale
by Siyan Zeng, Jing Ma, Yanhua Ren, Gang-Jun Liu, Qi Zhang and Fu Chen
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(24), 4928; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph16244928 - 05 Dec 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3787
Abstract
Soil polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollution is a major concern due to its negative impact on soil quality around the world. In China, accurate data on soil PAHs and information on the relationship with anthropogenic activities are limited. In this study, about 30,800 [...] Read more.
Soil polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollution is a major concern due to its negative impact on soil quality around the world. In China, accurate data on soil PAHs and information on the relationship with anthropogenic activities are limited. In this study, about 30,800 samples from 1833 soil sample sites were reviewed from 306 published reports to build a soil PAHs database. Based on the data obtained, the results demonstrated that 24.11% of surface soils in China are heavily contaminated. Meanwhile, the concentration of soil PAHs varied, in the order of independent mining and industrial areas (IMIA) > urban areas > suburban areas > rural areas, and the spatial distribution in China demonstrated a descending trend from north to south. Moreover, the characteristic ratio and PCA-MLR (principal component analysis-multiple linear regression) analysis demonstrated that coal combustion and vehicular exhaust emissions were the main sources of soil PAH pollution in China. On the other hand, provincial total Σ16PAHs in surface soil were significantly correlated with the per square kilometer GDP (gross domestic product) of industrial land, the per capita GDP, as well as the production and consumption of energy. These results indicate that anthropogenic factors have greatly affected the levels of soil PAHs in China. This study improves our understanding on the status and sources of soil PAH contamination in China, thereby facilitating the implementation of strategies of prevention, control, and remediation of soils. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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13 pages, 505 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Microenvironmental Exposures to Particle-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons for Elementary School Children
by Chin-Sheng Tang, Shih-Chun Candice Lung, Ta-Yuan Chang, Han-Hsiang Tu and Li-Te Chang
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(22), 4390; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph16224390 - 10 Nov 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2517
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are formed when organic matters incompletely combust and get distributed into the air in the form of vapor or the particular phase of absorption or condensation on the surface of respirable particles. Certain PAHs are considered as carcinogenic and [...] Read more.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are formed when organic matters incompletely combust and get distributed into the air in the form of vapor or the particular phase of absorption or condensation on the surface of respirable particles. Certain PAHs are considered as carcinogenic and mutagenic, and are primarily associated with the particulate phase. Therefore, the characterization of exposure to particle-bound PAHs (p-PAHs) is critical to assessing the health risks in our daily life. A panel study was conducted during the years 2004 and 2005 to assess microenvironmental exposures to p-PAHs for elementary school children living in Taipei metropolitan area. During the study, integrated filter samples were collected by a dust monitor (model 1.108, Grimm) for 17 p-PAH species analysis using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The sampling durations were five days. Overall, 52 samples for children’s microenvironmental exposures were included in the data analysis. Results showed that geometric mean (GM) levels (and geometric standard deviation) of p-PAH exposures were 4.443 (3.395) ng/m3 for children. The top three highest proportions of p-PAH components were indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IND) (21.7%), benzo[g,h,i]perylene (BghiP) (18.5%), and dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DBA) (9.1%), all of which are 5- or 6-ring p-PAHs. In addition, results from diagnostic ratios and principal component analysis (PCA) found that traffic pollution, incense burning, and cooking emission were the major p-PAH exposure sources for children. The total benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (BaPeq) concentration was 1.07 ± 0.80 ng/m3 (mean ± standard deviation), with a GM of 0.84 ng/m3. The GM value of the inhalation carcinogenic risk was 7.31 × 10−5 with the range of 2.23 × 10−5 to 3.11 × 10−4, which was higher than the U.S. Environmental Protection Administration guideline limit of 10−6. DBA accounted for 45.1% of the excess cancer risk, followed by benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) (33.5%) and IND (10.7%). In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that inhalational cancer risk due to the p-PAH exposures for children is not negligible, and more efficient technical and management policies should be adopted to reduce the PAH pollutant sources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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11 pages, 1630 KiB  
Article
The Characteristics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Different Emission Source Areas in Shenyang, China
by Lu Yang, Genki Suzuki, Lulu Zhang, Quanyu Zhou, Xuan Zhang, Wanli Xing, Masayuki Shima, Yoshiko Yoda, Ryohei Nakatsubo, Takatoshi Hiraki, Baijun Sun, Wenhua Fu, Hongye Qi, Kazuichi Hayakawa, Akira Toriba and Ning Tang
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(16), 2817; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph16162817 - 07 Aug 2019
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 3233
Abstract
Particulate matter (PM) was collected in three different areas, SY-1, SY-2, and SY-3, in Shenyang, China, during the warm and cold seasons from 2012 to 2014. SY-1 was located beside a thermal power plant, far from the central area. SY-2 was near a [...] Read more.
Particulate matter (PM) was collected in three different areas, SY-1, SY-2, and SY-3, in Shenyang, China, during the warm and cold seasons from 2012 to 2014. SY-1 was located beside a thermal power plant, far from the central area. SY-2 was near a coal heating boiler on the main road, close to the central area. SY-3 was on the main road, without fixed emission sources. Nine PM-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analyzed. The results showed that the mean concentration of total PAHs was higher in the cold season (92.6–316 ng m−3) than in the warm season (18.4–32.2 ng m−3). Five- and six-ring PAHs occupied a large percentage at all sites in the warm season, and four-ring PAHs were the dominant components in the cold season. Several diagnostic PAH ratios indicated that the main sources of PAHs in Shenyang in the warm and cold seasons were not only coal burning but also vehicle emission. In this study, we suggest that a benzo[a]pyrene/benzo[ghi]perylene ratio ([BaP]/[BgPe]) of 0.6 was a useful indicator to speculate the relative significance of coal burning and vehicle exhaust. Although the Shenyang government has undertaken actions to address air pollution, the PM and PAH concentrations did not decrease significantly compared to those in our previous studies. The cancer risk calculated from the BaP equivalent total concentration at all three sites in the warm and cold seasons exceeded the acceptable limit established by the US EPA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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17 pages, 1138 KiB  
Article
Emission Characteristics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Open Burning of Rice Straw in the North of Vietnam
by Chau-Thuy Pham, Yaowatat Boongla, Trung-Dung Nghiem, Huu-Tuyen Le, Ning Tang, Akira Toriba and Kazuichi Hayakawa
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(13), 2343; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph16132343 - 02 Jul 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4887
Abstract
This research investigated the distribution and contribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs) bound to particulate matter (PM) emitted from open burning of rice straw (RS) into the atmosphere in the north of Vietnam. The experiments were conducted to [...] Read more.
This research investigated the distribution and contribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs) bound to particulate matter (PM) emitted from open burning of rice straw (RS) into the atmosphere in the north of Vietnam. The experiments were conducted to collect PM2.5 and total suspended particulates (TSP) prior to and during burning in the period of 2016–2018 in suburban areas of Hanoi. Nine PAHs and 18 NPAHs were determined using the HPLC-FL system. The results showed that the proportion of RS burning seasonally affects the variation of PAHs emission in atmospheric environment. The levels of nine PAHs from RS burning were 254.4 ± 87.8 µg g−1 for PM2.5 and 209.7 ± 89.5 µg g−1 for TSP. We observed the fact that, although fluoranthene (Flu) was the most abundant PAH among detected PAHs both in PM2.5 and TSP, the enrichment of Flu in TSP from burning smoke was higher than that in PM2.5 while the contribution of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and indeno[1,2,3- cd]pyrene (IDP) in PM2.5 from burning smoke were much higher than those in TSP. This research found that 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) and 6-nitrochrysene (6-NC) emit from RS burning with the same range with those from wood burning. The 2-nitrofluorene (2-NF) and 2-nitropyrene (2-NP) released from RS burning as the secondary NPAHs. This research provides a comprehensive contribution characterization of PAHs and NPAHs in PM with different size emitted from traditional local rice straw burning in the north of Vietnam. The results help to clarify the environmental behavior of toxic organic compounds from RS burning in Southeast Asia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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Review

Jump to: Research

23 pages, 2446 KiB  
Review
Toxicities of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons for Aquatic Animals
by Masato Honda and Nobuo Suzuki
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(4), 1363; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17041363 - 20 Feb 2020
Cited by 290 | Viewed by 19584
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are organic compounds that are widely distributed in the air, water, and soil. Recently, the amount of PAHs derived from fuels and from incomplete combustion processes is increasing. In the aquatic environment, oil spills directly cause PAH pollution and [...] Read more.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are organic compounds that are widely distributed in the air, water, and soil. Recently, the amount of PAHs derived from fuels and from incomplete combustion processes is increasing. In the aquatic environment, oil spills directly cause PAH pollution and affect marine organisms. Oil spills correlate very well with the major shipping routes. Furthermore, accidental oil spills can seriously impact the marine environment toxicologically. Here, we describe PAH toxicities and related bioaccumulation properties in aquatic animals, including invertebrates. Recent studies have revealed the toxicity of PAHs, including endocrine disruption and tissue-specific toxicity, although researchers have mainly focused on the carcinogenic toxicity of PAHs. We summarize the toxicity of PAHs regarding these aspects. Additionally, the bioaccumulation properties of PAHs for organisms, including invertebrates, are important factors when considering PAH toxicity. In this review, we describe the bioaccumulation properties of PAHs in aquatic animals. Recently, microplastics have been the most concerning environmental problem in the aquatic ecosystem, and the vector effect of microplastics for lipophilic compounds is an emerging environmental issue. Here, we describe the correlation between PAHs and microplastics. Thus, we concluded that PAHs have a toxicity for aquatic animals, indicating that we should emphasize the prevention of aquatic PAH pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Research: Occurrence, Fate, Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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