Catalysts, Volume 14, Issue 4 (April 2024) – 68 articles

Photocatalysis is considered as an environmentally friendly method for both solar energy conversion and environmental purification of water, wastewater, air, and surfaces. Among various photocatalytic materials, titania is still the most widely investigated and applied, but more efforts must be carried out considering the synthesis of highly efficient photocatalysts for multifarious applications. It is thought that nanoengineering design of titania morphology might be the best solution. Accordingly, here, titania mesocrystals, assembled from crystallographically oriented nanocrystals, have been synthesized by an easy, cheap, and “green” solvothermal method (without the use of surfactants and templates), followed by simple annealing. The obtained materials have been characterized by various methods, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS). It has been found that the as-obtained photocatalysts exhibit a unique nanorod-like subunit structure with excellent crystalline and surface properties. However, pristine titania is hardly active for a hydrogen evolution reaction, and thus additional modification has been performed by platinum photodeposition (and silver as a reference). Indeed, the modification with only 2 wt% of noble metals results in a significant enhancement in activity, i.e., ca. 75 and 550 times by silver- and platinum-modified samples, respectively, reaching the corresponding reaction rates of 37 μmol h⁻¹ and 276 μmol h⁻¹. Additionally, titania mesocrystals exhibit high oxidation power under simulated solar light irradiation for the degradation of antibiotics within the tetracycline group (tetracycline (TC), ciprofloxacin (CIP), norfloxacin (NOR) and oxytetracycline hydrochloride (OTC)). It has been found that both experimental results and the density functional theory (DFT) calculations confirm the high ability of titania mesocrystals for oxidative decomposition of tetracycline antibiotics. Full article

The catalytic decomposition of CH₄ to H₂ and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was investigated regarding Pt(1)-Fe(30)/MCM-41 and Fe(30)/MCM-41 using a fixed-bed flow reactor under an atmosphere. X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), transmission electron microscope (TEM), and Raman spectroscopy were used to characterize the behavior of Pt(1)-Fe(30)/MCM-41 and Fe(30)/MCM-41. The hydrogen yield of Pt(1)-Fe(30)/MCM-41 was 3.2 times higher than that of Fe(30)/MCM-41. When 1 wt% of Pt was added to Fe(30)/MCM-41(Mobil Composition of Matter No. 41), the atomic percentage of Fe2p increased from 13.39% to 16.14% and the core Fe2p_1/2 electron levels of Fe⁰ and Fe²⁺ chemically shifted to lower energies (0.2 eV and 0.1 eV, respectively) than those of Fe(30)/MCM-41. The Fe, Pt, Si, and O nanoparticles were uniformly distributed on the catalyst surface, and the average iron particle sizes of the Pt(1)-Fe(30)/MCM-41 and Fe(30)/MCM-41 were about 33.4 nm and 58.5 nm, respectively. This is attributed to the uniform distribution of the nano-sized iron particles on the MCM-41 surface, which was due to the suitable metal-carrier interaction (SMCI) between Fe, Pt, and MCM-41 and the high reduction degree of Fe due to the spillover effect of H₂ from Pt to Fe. Pt(1)-Fe(30)/MCM-41 produced multiwalled CNTs and bamboo-shaped CNTs with high crystallinity and graphitization degree using the tip-growth mechanism, with an I_D/I_G ratio of 0.93 and a C(101)/C(002) ratio of 0.64. Full article

The vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is a highly favorable tool for storing renewable energy, and the catalytic activity of electrode materials is crucial for its development. Taurine-functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were prepared with the aim of augmenting the redox process of vanadium ions and enhancing the efficiency of the VRFB. Sulfonated CNTs were synthesized through a simple modification process in a taurine solution and used as electrocatalysts for redox reactions involving VO²⁺/VO₂⁺ and V²⁺/V³⁺. The SO₃H-CNTs modified at 60 °C for 2 h exhibit the best electrocatalytic activity, showing higher redox peak current values compared to pristine carboxylated CNTs (COOH-CNTs). Sulfonic acid groups added to the surface of CNTs increase active sites for redox reactions and act as carriers for mass transfer and bridges for charge transfer, accelerating the rate of the electrode reactions. A battery consisting of SO₃H-CNTs as catalysts demonstrates the outstanding charge–discharge performance at a current density of 300 mA∙cm⁻². This configuration displays voltage and energy efficiencies of 81.46% and 78.83%, respectively, representing enhancements of 6.15% and 6.12% compared to that equipped with conventional graphite felts (75.31%, 72.71%). This study illustrates that taurine-functionalized carbon nanotubes serve as an efficient and promising catalyst for both the anode and cathode, leading to the improved performance of the VRFB. Full article

Surface hydrophobicity is an important factor in controlling the catalytic activity of heterogeneous catalysts in various reactions, particularly liquid-phase reactions using water as the (co)solvent. In this study, the surface hydrophobicity of Fe-ZSM-5 was successfully controlled using a simple coating method in which furfuryl alcohol was used as the carbon precursor. Various techniques, such as N₂ physisorption, temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia, and contact angle measurements of water droplets, were used to characterize the catalysts. Fe-ZSM-5 catalysts with different degrees of hydrophobicity were used for the aqueous-phase selective oxidation of methane with H₂O₂. The positive effect of the surface carbon coating on the catalytic performance was confirmed when the carbon content was not sufficiently high to block the pores. Full article

Fe/N-doped carbon (Fe-NC) is an excellent base-metal catalyst for use in an electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) with high activity. In this paper, graphite phase carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) was first obtained from the pyrolyzing of melamine, and then different proportions of FeCl₃ were separately doped into g-C₃N₄ to further prepare the Fe-NC catalyst. The Fe-NC catalyst was applied in an ORR reaction, and the results show that the Fe-NC catalyst doped with 0.5 mmol FeCl₃ possesses exceptional electrocatalytic performance, with an onset potential of 0.96 V and a half-wave potential of 0.81 V, which approaches that of a Pt/C catalyst. Meanwhile, the Fe-NC catalyst displays high stability and methanol resistance. The results supply a new way to prepare efficient ORR electrocatalysts. Full article

NiFe-layered double hydroxides (NiFe-LDH) have been reported to possess exceptional oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activity. However, maintaining the stability of high activity over a long time remains a critical challenge that needs to be addressed for their practical application. Here, we report a custom-sized deep recombination of 2D graphene oxide with NiFe-LDH (NiFe-LDH/GO/NF) through a simple electrodeposition method that improves OER activity and achieves excellent stability. The excellent performance of the catalyst mainly comes from the three-phase interface and electron transport channel dredged by the three-dimensional structure constructed by the deep composite, which can not only significantly reduce its charge and electron transfer resistance, improving the material conductivity, but it also effectively increases the specific surface area, inhibits aggregation, and exposes rich active sites. In addition, GO with good conductivity not only supports NiFe-LDH well but also increases the heterogeneous interface, putting the NiFe-LDH/GO composites in close contact with Ni foam and increasing the electrocatalytic stability of the NiFe-LDH/GO/NF. The experimental results show that the overpotential of NiFe-LDH/20,000GO/NF is only 295 mV at a current density of 100 mA cm⁻²; the Tafel slope is 52 mV dec⁻¹, and the charge transfer resistance (Rct) is only 0.601 Ω in 1 M KOH. This indicates that GO has excellent potential to assist in constructing geometric and electronic structures of NiFe-LDH in long-term applications. Full article

Seed emulsion polymerization was an effective modification method to improve not only the properties of polymers but also the compatibility between different polymers by designing special core-shell structures. In this study, poly (butadiene-styrene-vinyl pyridine) (VPR)/poly (acrylonitrile-butadiene) (NBR) core–shell nanoparticles (VPR/NBR) were prepared by seed emulsion polymerization using VPR as seed emulsion and butadiene and acrylonitrile as monomers. Subsequently, HVPR/HNBR was obtained by direct hydrogenation of the core–shell nanoparticles in latex using Wilkinson’s catalyst under high temperature and H₂ pressure. It is noteworthy that the unsaturated C=C double bonds in the core (VPR) and shell (NBR) of HVPR/HNBR nanoparticles were reduced simultaneously during the hydrogenation process without obvious sequence. The particle size and size distribution of the particles remained consistent before and after hydrogenation, indicating that the synthesized core-shell nanoparticles have excellent stability. This study provides a new perspective on the chemical modification of NBR and promises an environmentally friendly “green” process for the industrial hydrogenation of unsaturated elastomers. Full article

A series of Zn-modified HBeta (Zn/HBeta) catalysts were prepared via the wetness impregnation method with different zinc precursors such as ZnSO₄·7H₂O, ZnCl₂, C₄H₆O₄Zn·2H₂O and Zn(NO₃)₂·6H₂O, and their catalytic performance in the conversion of ethanol to propylene reaction was evaluated. Results indicate that the amount and strength distribution of the acid sites of the Zn/HBeta catalysts were easily tuned by employing different types of zinc precursors. More importantly, when the zinc species were introduced to the HBeta, the propylene yield was significantly enhanced, whereas the yields of ethylene and C₂–C₄ alkanes were remarkably suppressed. For the catalyst prepared by using the ZnCl₂ precursor, a higher propylene yield of up to 43.4% for Zn/HBeta-C was achieved as a result of the moderate amount and strength distribution of acid sites. The average coking rate of the used Zn/HBeta catalysts strongly depended on the amount of total acid sites, especially the strong acid sites, i.e., the higher the amount of total acid sites of the catalyst, the greater the average coking rate. For the catalyst prepared by using the ZnSO₄·7H₂O precursor, Zn/HBeta-S exhibited a better stability even after depositing more coke, which was due to the higher amount of strong acid sites. Full article

The photocatalytic removal of nitric oxide (NO) is a promising technology used to reduce the level of harmful gaseous pollutants in parts per billion (ppb). As a potential photocatalyst, Bi₂Sn₂O₇ has a low quantum efficiency due to its fast recombination rate of photo-generated carriers. In this paper, Bi/Bi₂Sn₂O₇ was prepared by the in situ deposition of Bi. The structural, electrical, and optical properties of the attained sample were investigated through a series of analyses. The results demonstrate that Bi nanoparticles not only enhance the photoabsorption ability of Bi₂Sn₂O₇ due to their surface plasmon resonance (SPR) effect, but also improve its photocatalytic activity. Photocatalytic performance was evaluated by the oxidation of NO at ppb level under xenon lamp (λ > 400 nm) irradiation. It was found that the photocatalytic NO removal rate increased from 7.2% (Bi₂Sn₂O₇) to 38.6% (Bi/Bi₂Sn₂O₇). The loading of Bi promotes the separation and migration of photo-generated carriers and enhances the generation of •O²⁻ and •OH radicals responsible for the oxidation of NO. The Bi/Bi₂Sn₂O₇ composite photocatalyst also exhibits excellent photocatalytic stability, which makes it a potential candidate for use in air purification systems. Full article

A four-step synthesis process of bifunctional, noncovalent organocatalysts based on the chiral (1R,2R)-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine scaffold containing a 1,2-benzenediamine H-bond donor was developed. Nucleophilic aromatic substitution of the 2-fluoronitrobenzene derivative with the commercial (1R,2R)-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine was followed by selective alkylation of the primary amino group, reduction of the aromatic nitro group and final derivatization of the primary aromatic amino group, i.e., acylation, sulfonation, reductive alkylation and arylation, leading to the four subtypes of organocatalysts. All new compounds were fully characterized. The prepared organocatalysts (32 examples) were tested in the Michael addition of acetylacetone to trans-β-nitrostyrene, yielding the addition product with incomplete conversions (up to 93%) and enantioselectivities of up to 41% ee. Full article

The present work used the Behnajady–Modirshahla–Ghanbary (BMG) kinetic model to determine the initial reaction rates (1/m), which were used to calculate the activation energy (Ea) from the decolorization of synthetic dyes by Fenton processes (Fe²⁺/H₂O₂, Fe²⁺/H₂O₂/reducer and Fe³⁺/H₂O₂/reducer). When increasing the temperature and adding Fe³⁺-reducing compounds (3-Hydroxyanthranilic Acid, Hydroquinone, Gallic Acid, Cysteine or Ascorbic Acid), increases in the 1/m values were observed. When studying the classical Fenton reaction (Fe²⁺/H₂O₂), almost all added reducers had decreased Ea. For example, 3-Hydroxyanthranilic Acid decreased the Ea related to the decolorization of the Phenol Red dye by 39%, while Ascorbic Acid decreased the Ea of Safranin T decolorization by 23%. These results demonstrate that the reducers increased the initial reaction rate and decreased the energy barrier to improve Fenton-based decolorization of dyes. When comparing the reaction systems in presence of reducers (Feⁿ⁺/H₂O₂/reducer), the reactions initially containing Fe²⁺ presented lower Ea than reactions catalyzed by Fe³⁺. That way, the activation energy obtained through the 1/m values of the BMG model highlighted the pro-oxidant effect of reducers in Fenton processes to degrade dyes. Full article

The search for active, inexpensive, and stable heterogeneous catalysts to produce desired imines in fine chemistry presents an ongoing challenge for both academia and industry. This work reports the utilization of Co nanoparticles supported on TiO₂ derived from the H₂-assisted reduction of the perovskite-type mixed oxide CoTiO₃. The entire preparation process is operationally simple and straightforward, enabling scalability for practical applications. The resulting catalyst comprises metallic cobalt nanoparticles responsible for the hydrogenation process, whereas the TiO_x thin layer surrounding the cobalt promotes the adsorption of C=O, thereby enhancing the formation of desired products. Notably, at lower temperatures, the reaction yields the target imine product. Our study demonstrates a synergistic effect between nitrobenzene and benzaldehyde in the presence of a Co-TiO_x interface, which reduces the apparent activation energy for the hydrogenation of the-NO₂ group. Furthermore, under moderate reaction conditions, the catalytic system offers applicability to various nitrobenzene compounds substituted at the 4-position and benzaldehyde, resulting in high yields of the corresponding imines with electron-density-donating substituent groups. Finally, the catalyst exhibits facile separation for subsequent reuse, displaying moderate stability with minimal selectivity for the desired product. Full article

The effect of non-saturated corner and edge sites of Pd particles on the long-term selectivity of cis-3-hexen-1-ol in the hydrogenation of 3-hexyn-1-ol was studied in this work. Non-supported Pd agglomerates were synthesized through the microemulsion synthesis route and used at$n_{alkynol}/A_{Pd}$ ratios between 0.08 and 21 $\mathrm{m}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{l}/{\mathrm{m}}^2$ for the catalytic conversion of 3-hexyn-1-ol for 20 h. The selectivity of the cis-hexenol product increased by reducing the quantity of Pd catalytic sites (increasing the $n_{alkynol}/A_{Pd}$ ratio) without introducing any modifier or doping agent to poison the nonselective sites. Then, Pd aggregates with fused primary particles and, thus, fewer corner and edge sites were produced through thermal sintering of the agglomerates at 473–723 K. By comparing the catalytic performance of the agglomerates and aggregates, it was observed that at a rather similar kinetic behavior (99.99% conversion and 85–89% selectivity to cis-hexenol), the sintered aggregates could stay selective despite a catalytic surface area about seven times larger. This emphasizes the role of low-coordinated edge and corner sites on the final selectivity of the cis product and demonstrates that thermal sintering allows the number of non-selective sites to be reduced without any need for toxic or organic doping agents or modifiers. Full article

This paper presents an experimental study of using a double-layered Cu/TiO₂ and P₄O₁₀/TiO₂ as photocatalysts for CO₂ reduction with an extended wavelength of range light from ultraviolet light (UV) to infrared light (IR). The lights studied were UV + visible light (VIS) + IR, VIS + IR and IR only. This study also investigated the impact of the molar ratio of CO₂:H₂O on the CO₂ reduction performance. This study revealed that the optimum molar ratio of CO₂:H₂O to produce CO was 1:1, irrespective of light illumination condition, which matched the theoretical molar ratio to produce CO according to the reaction scheme of CO₂ reduction with H₂O. Comparing the results of double-layered Cu/TiO₂ and P₄O₁₀/TiO₂ with those of double-layered TiO₂ obtained under the UV + VIS + IR light illumination condition, the highest concentration of formed CO and the molar quantity of formed CO per unit weight of the photocatalyst increased by 281 ppmV and 0.8 μmol/g, in the case of the molar ratio of CO₂:H₂O = 1:1. With IR-only illumination, the highest concentration of formed CO and the molar quantity of CO formed per unit weight of the photocatalyst was 251 ppmV and 4.7 μmol/g, respectively. Full article

Tetracycline antibiotics are widely used in human medical treatment, control of animal disease, and agricultural feed because of their broad spectrum of action, high efficiency, and low cost. The excessive use of antibiotics and arbitrary discharge of antibiotic wastewater have become increasingly serious problems, and the current sewage-treatment process is not ideal for treating water contaminated with tetracycline antibiotics, leading to increasingly prominent antibiotic pollution in water and the imminent need for its removal. In order to understand the necessity of removing tetracycline antibiotics from the water environment, this paper first expounds on their source, harms, and pollution status in oceans and in surface water, groundwater, wastewater, and drinking water. It next introduces the research status of conventional treatment methods such as adsorption methods, biological methods, and physical and chemical methods, then introduces new treatment methods such as advanced oxidation methods and comprehensive treatment technology in sewage plants. The degradation effects, mechanisms of action, and challenges of these methods were summarized. The advantages and disadvantages of each treatment technology are compared. Finally, potential future processing technologies are discussed. Full article

Linear α-olefins (LAOs) are linear alkenes with double bonds at the ends of the molecular chains. LAOs with different chain lengths can be widely applied in various fields. Ethylene oligomerization has become the main process for producing LAOs. In this review, different homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts recently reported in ethylene oligomerization with Ni, Fe, Co, Cr, etc., as active centers will be discussed. In the homogeneous catalytic system, we mainly discuss the effects of the molecular structure and the electronic and coordination states of complexes on their catalytic activity and selectivity. The Ni, Fe, and Co homogeneous catalysts are discussed separately based on different ligand types, while the Cr-based homogeneous catalysts are discussed separately for ethylene trimerization, tetramerization, and non-selective oligomerization. In heterogeneous catalytic systems, we mainly concentrate on the influence of various supports (metal–organic frameworks, covalent organic frameworks, molecular sieves, etc.) and different ways to introduce active centers to affect the performance in ethylene oligomerization. Finally, a summary and outlook on ethylene oligomerization catalysts are provided based on the current research. The development of highly selective α-olefin formation processes remains a major challenge for academia and industry. Full article

The use of hydrogen peroxide (produced in situ or ex situ) as the main agent in oxidative processes of environmental pollutant removal is widely studied. The degradation of water pollutants, such as dyes, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, petroleum derivatives, and even pathogens, has been successfully obtained by different techniques. This review gives an overview of the more recent methods developed to apply oxidative processes mediated by H₂O₂ and other reactive oxygen species (ROS) in environmental catalysis, with particular attention to the strategies (Fenton-like and Bio-Fenton, photo- and electro-catalysis) and the materials employed. A wide discussion about the characteristics of the materials specifically studied for hydrogen peroxide activation, as well as about their chemical composition and morphology, was carried out. Moreover, recent interesting methods for the generation and use of hydrogen peroxide by enzymes were also presented and their efficiency and applicability compared with the Fenton and electro-Fenton methods discussed above. The use of Bio-Fenton and bi-enzymatic methods for the in situ generation of ROS seems to be attractive and scalable, although not yet applied in full-scale plants. A critical discussion about the feasibility, criticalities, and perspectives of all the methods considered completes this review. Full article

Biodiesel from waste frying oil was produced via methanolysis using biochar-based catalysts prepared by carbonizing banana peels (350 °C and 400 °C) mixed with 20% (wt.) of alkali carbonates (Na, Li, or K). The catalysts exhibited a bi-functional character: acidic and basic. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the alkali’s role in char graphitization, influencing morphology and oxygen content. Oxygenated surface sites acted as acidic sites for free fatty acid esterification, while alkali sites facilitated triglyceride transesterification. The best catalyst obtained by carbonization at 350 °C, without alkali modifier, led to 97.5% FAME by processing a waste frying oil with 1.2 mg _KOH/g _oil acidity. Most of the studied catalysts yielded high-quality glycerin, allowing the significance of homogenous catalyzed processes to be discarded. Full article

Global energy demand escalates the interest in effective and durable catalytic systems for the dry reforming of methane (DRM), a process that converts CO₂/CH₄ into H₂/CO syngas. Porous silica-supported nickel (Ni) catalysts are recognized as a promising candidate due to robust DRM activity associated with the confinement of Ni particles in the mesopores that reduces the catalyst deactivation by carbon byproduct deposits and sintering of active Ni sites. However, the small-sized pore configurations in the mesoporous catalysts hinders the fast mass transfer of reactants and products. A unique combination of the hierarchical nanostructure with macro–mesoporous features of the support is adopted to enhance the catalytic performance via the dual effect of the efficient mass transfer and minimized sintering issue. This study delves into the influence of SiO₂ geometry and pore structure on the catalytic performance of Ni-based catalysts. Three types of porous silica supports were synthesized through various methods: (a) hydrothermal-assisted sol–gel for dendritic mesoporous silica (DMS), (b) spray-pyrolysis-assisted sol–gel for spray evaporation-induced self-assembly (EISA) silica, and (c) oven-assisted sol–gel for oven EISA silica. Among the prepared catalysts the hierarchical external nanostructured Ni/DMS showed the superior CH₄ and CO₂ conversion rates (76.6% and 82.1%), even at high space velocities (GHSV = 360 L∙g⁻¹·h⁻¹). The distinctive macro–mesoporous geometry effectively prevents the sintering of Ni particles and promotes the smooth diffusion of the reactants and products, thus improving catalytic stability over extended reaction periods (24 h). This research highlights the significant impact of macro–mesoporosity revealed in DMS support catalysts on the physicochemical properties of Ni/DMS and their crucial role in enhancing DRM reaction efficiency. Full article

The threat of ozone in indoor spaces and other enclosed environments is receiving increasing attention. Among numerous ozone catalytic decomposition technologies, copper catalytic material has a superior performance and relatively low cost, making it one of the ideal catalyst materials. This review presents the recent Cu catalyst studies on ozone decomposition, particularly morphological design, the construction of heterostructures, and monolithic catalyst design used to improve their performance. Moreover, this review proposes further improvement directions based on Cu materials’ inherent limitations and practical needs. On this basis, in the foreseeable future, Cu materials will play a greater role. Full article

A mild and efficient protocol for visible-light-photocatalyzed C5 nitration of 8-aminoquinoline derivatives was developed utilizing Cu(NO₃)₂∙3H₂O as a nitro source. The reaction proceeded smoothly under very mild conditions, employing Acid Red 94 and a commercial household light bulb as an organic photosensitizer and a light source, respectively, making this synthetic procedure green and easy to operate. Furthermore, most products could be obtained through recrystallization, which enhanced the operational simplicity of this method. Full article

Carbon nitrides form a series of polymer semiconductors popular in photocatalysis. In the course of photoresponse, the separation of light-induced electron–hole pairs is one of the critical factors that affect the conversion rate from photoenergy to chemical substance. Exciton binding energy ($E_b$) is treated as a classical parameter to evaluate the barrier of exciton dissociation. In this work, we study the electronic and optical nature of two specific members of the carbon nitride family, polymeric carbon nitride (melon) and crystallized poly(triazine imide) (PTI/Li⁺Cl⁻) by employing the photoluminescence spectra and density functional theory (DFT) calculations based on the Wannier-Mott exciton module. The results of self-consistent GW computation were applied. The measurement of photoluminescence spectra, by which exciton binding energies are estimated, is likewise discussed. Generally, compared with the results calculated by GW-BSE, the DFT results based on the Wannier-Mott model are closer to the experimental values. From a materials perspective, on the other hand, the exciton binding energy of the melon is lower than that of PTI/Li⁺Cl⁻. Full article

Valorization of waste biomass materials for fuels and other energy products has become one of the effective ways of escalating and improving the bioeconomy. The development of a novel biomass solid catalyst obtained from waste avocado peels and its potentials in transesterification of a bi-hybrid oil of used cooking–baobab oil (UC-BO) was investigated in this study. The catalyst was produced by calcining the burnt char of the dried avocado peels. The produced calcined avocado peels catalyst (CAP) was further characterized using analytical equipment, such as FT-IR, XRD, SEM, EDX, and TGA, to ascertain its catalytic properties. The results revealed that CAP contains some vital elements, such as Mg, P, Cl, Ca, Si, Na, and a high percentage of K content, present in form of oxides, carbonates, chlorides, and mixed metal compounds. The catalyst displayed effective catalytic potential in converting the UC-BO to biodiesel with 100% yield under an optimized condition of 51 min reaction time (RT), 14.5:1 of methanol to oil ratio (MTOR), and 2.73 wt% of catalyst loading (CL) at a constant temperature of 60 °C. The CAP exhibited excellent recyclability potential, achieving 92.85% biodiesel yield after five successive reaction cycles without notable catalytic activity reduction. The fuel properties investigated were all established within the biodiesel quality specifications of EN 14241 and ASTM D6751, demonstrating that it is a practical substitute for petroleum fuel. Full article

This work focuses on the study of biodiesel production from commercial rapeseed oil and methanol via transesterification reactions on monometallic copper and bimetallic copper–noble metal (platinum, ruthenium) catalysts supported on BEA zeolite. The catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation method on the hydrogen form of BEA zeolite. As part of the study, the physicochemical and catalytic properties of the prepared catalytic materials were determined. The catalytic activity tests were carried out in the transesterification reaction over prepared catalysts at 220 °C for 2 h in an autoclave. The physicochemical properties of the obtained catalysts were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), specific surface area and porosity (BET), a scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM–EDS) and temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia (TPD-NH₃) method. The results of the catalytic activity showed the promotional effect of the noble metal on the TG conversion and FAME efficiency of copper catalysts in the biodiesel production process. The most active catalyst turned out to be the calcined 5%Cu–1%Ru/BEA catalyst, which showed the highest TG conversion of 85.7% and the second highest FAME efficiency of 58.4%. The high activity of this system is explained by its surface acidity and large specific surface area. Full article

Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) is widely used as an intermediate and solvent in the organic chemical industry. In recent years, compared with the traditional DMC production methods (phosgene method, transesterification method), methanol oxidation carbonylation method, gas-phase methyl nitrite method, and the direct synthesis of CO₂ and methanol method have made much progress in the synthesis process and development of catalysts. The key to the industrial application of DMC synthesis technology is the design and development of high-performance catalysts. Therefore, this paper reviews the research status of the methanol oxidative carbonylation method, gas-phase methyl nitrite method, and direct synthesis method of CO₂ and methanol in the aspects of new catalyst design, catalyst preparation, and catalytic mechanism, and puts forward the problems to be solved and the future development direction of DMC catalysts. Full article

Arsenic in drinking water is one of the most concerning problems nowadays due to its high toxicity. The aim of this work is the photocatalytic oxidation of As(III) to As(V) under visible light. This study is focused on the use of gadolinium-doped bismuth ferrite as a photocatalyst active under visible light. Different gadolinium amounts were evaluated (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10 mol%), and 2 mol% resulted in the best gadolinium amount to reach higher photocatalytic efficiency in terms of As(V) production. The samples were thoroughly characterized in their optical, structural, and morphological properties. The results allowed us to identify an optimal concentration of gadolinium equal to 2 mol%. The reactive oxygen species most responsible for the photocatalytic mechanism, evaluated through the addition of radical scavengers, were O₂^−● and e⁻. Finally, a photocatalytic test was performed with a drinking water sample polluted by As(III), showing photocatalytic performance similar to distilled water. Therefore, gadolinium-doped bismuth ferrite can be considered an efficient catalytic material for the oxidation of As(III) to As(V) under visible light. Full article

The present investigation aims to improve the efficiency of fungal mono- and mixed cultures in removing organic pollutants and metals from sewage water (SW) for further maize plant response assessments. The reduction in the organic load from the SW was harnessed using a co-culture consortium consisting of Aspergillus niger (KB5), Sordariomycetes sp. (D10), and Coniochaetaceae sp. (LB3). The testing results had evinced removal of up to 88% of the organic matter and more than 96%, 91%, 80%, and 47.6%, of removal percentages for Copper (Cu), Nickel (Ni), Cadmium (Cd), and Lead (Pb), respectively, with the developed fungal consortium [KB5 + D10 + LB3]. After treatment and lab experiments, a reuse of treated and untreated SW for plant irrigation was evaluated towards improving maize plant growth. Irrigation was conducted in pot experiments with three types of water: clean water (Control), untreated (USW), and treated SW by fungal consortia (TSW) and by station treatment plant STP (TSWP) using the randomized complete block (RCB) experimental design. Results of the pots trial revealed that the morphological parameters of SW-irrigated plants are slightly improved compared to water-irrigated plants. Data regarding assimilating area attributes indicated that the most significant enlargement of the assimilation area was observed with TSW-D (1/4) irrigation by 1051 cm², followed by TSWP-D (0) by 953.96 cm², then USW-D (1/4) by 716.54 cm², as compared to plants irrigated with clean water (506.91 cm²). On average, the assimilation areas were larger by 51.76%, 46.86%, and 29.25% in TSW, USW, and TSWP-irrigated plants, respectively. Thus, SW irrigation supports the required qualities and quantities of microelements and water for plant growth. Oxidative stress assessment showed that irrigations with treated SW caused a significant decrease in both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, depicting that the treatment lowered the stress of sewage water. Full article

The side chain alkylation of toluene with methanol was studied on a series of CsX catalysts prepared by varying the Cs species and ion exchange conditions. The effects of various parameters, such as the exchanging temperatures and times on the adsorption/activation properties of different CsX catalysts, were investigated by combining a variety of characterization means for understanding the role of Cs species in the side chain alkylation reaction. On the basis of the various characterization results and their related literature results, it can be proposed that the Cs ions located on the ion-exchanged sites of X zeolites could effectively adsorb and activate toluene molecularly through modifying the basicity of framework oxygen, whereas the cluster of cesium oxide (Cs₂O) could ensure the effective conversion of methanol into formaldehyde. Additionally, Cs ions can promote the production of monodentate formate, which enhances the selectivity of styrene. However, too much Cs₂O will lead to the excessive decomposition of methanol into CO₂, CO, and H₂, thus inhibiting the production of styrene. In summary, the presence of suitable amounts of Cs ions and Cs₂O clusters plays a significant role in the formation of the side chain products of styrene and ethylbenzene. Full article

Hydrodechlorination reaction of 3-(benzo-1,3-dioxol-5-yl)-3-chloro-2-methylacrylaldehyde in the presence of different low metal content heterogeneous mono- or bimetallic catalysts was tested for the synthesis of the fragrance Helional^® (3-[3,4-methylendioxyphenyl]-2-methyl-propionaldehyde). In particular, mono Pd/Al₂O₃, Rh/Al₂O₃ or bimetallic Pd-Cu/Al₂O₃, Rh-Cu/Al₂O₃ catalysts were tested in different reaction conditions from which it emerged that mono-Rh/Al₂O₃ was the best performing catalyst, allowing achievement of 100% substrate conversion and 99% selectivity towards Helional^® in 24 h at 80 °C, p(H₂) 1.0 MPa in the presence of a base. To establish correlations between atomic structure and catalytic activity, catalysts were characterized by Cu, Rh and Pd K-edge XANES, EXAFS analysis. These characterizations allowed verification that the formation of Pd-Cu alloys and the presence of Cu oxide/hydroxide species on the surface of the Al₂O₃ support are responsible for the very low catalytic efficiency of bimetallic species tested. Full article

Water splitting is widely acknowledged as an efficient method for hydrogen production. In recent years, significant research efforts have been directed towards developing cost-effective electrocatalysts. However, the management of bubbles formed on the electrode surface during electrolysis has been largely overlooked. These bubbles can impede the active sites, resulting in decreased catalytic performance and stability, especially at high current densities. Consequently, this impediment affects the energy conversion efficiency of water splitting. To address these challenges, this review offers a comprehensive overview of advanced strategies aimed at improving catalytic performance and mitigating the obstructive effects of bubbles in water splitting. These strategies primarily involve the utilization of experimental apparatus to observe bubble-growth behavior, encompassing nucleation, growth, and detachment stages. Moreover, the review examines factors influencing bubble formation, considering both mechanical behaviors and internal factors. Additionally, the design of efficient water-splitting catalysts is discussed, focusing on modifying electrode-surface characteristics. Finally, the review concludes by summarizing the potential of bubble management in large-scale industrial hydrogen production and identifying future directions for achieving efficient hydrogen production. Full article