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Article

Germination Pattern and Seed Longevity of Echinochloa colona (L.) Link in Eastern Australia

by
Gulshan Mahajan
1,2 and
Bhagirath Singh Chauhan
2,3,*
1
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India
2
Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia
3
School of Agriculture and Food Sustainability (AGFS), The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4343, Australia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2023, 13(8), 2044; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13082044
Submission received: 14 July 2023 / Revised: 27 July 2023 / Accepted: 28 July 2023 / Published: 1 August 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Weed Management in the Agroecosystem)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Knowledge of the germination pattern and seed longevity of Echinochloa colona under field conditions could play a crucial role in effective weed management. Germination patterns of four populations (B17/12, B17/13, B17/7, and B17/25) of E. colona collected from eastern Australia were studied under field conditions for two years. Each population had multiple cohorts, and peak germination occurred in December 2018. Population B17/12 had a lower dormancy level compared with other populations, as 87% of the seeds germinated in the first cohort. Regression analysis revealed that populations B17/12, B17/13, B17/7, and B17/25 required 2130, 3110, 4320, and 6040 cumulative growing degree days (GDD), respectively, for 80% germination. The last cohorts of each population (100% germination) were observed in February 2020. This suggests that the populations of E. colona had innate dormancy, and a proportion of seeds can germinate in the next season. For the seed persistence study, seed bags of three populations (B17/4, B17/26, and B17/35) were exhumed at different intervals at two locations (Gatton and St George) over 30 months to evaluate decay components. Averaged over locations, burial duration, and burial depth, populations behaved similarly for the seed decay component. After 30 months of seed placement at Gatton, viable seeds at 1, 5, and 15 cm burial depths were 8, 26, and 15%, respectively. However, during the same time period at St George, viable seeds at 1, 5, and 15 cm burial depths were 0, 4, and 3%, respectively. These results implied that E. colona seeds persisted for a longer period (>2 years) in the light-textured soil (Gatton), particularly at the 5 cm burial depth. After 30 months of seed placement at Gatton, seeds decayed faster at 1 cm compared with the 5 cm burial depth. The studies demonstrated that seed persistence and germination patterns of E. colona may vary with different soil and agro-climatic conditions. The results suggest that management strategies should be followed to enable early control of E. colona over a three year period and that restricting reinfestation of weed seeds through seed rains could lead to almost complete control of E. colona in the field.

1. Introduction

Echinochloa colona (L.) Link is a problematic weed in sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek], maize (Zea mays L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), and many other summer field crops grown in eastern Australia. High seed production potential (>40,000 seeds per plant), evolved glyphosate-resistant populations, dormant behavior of the seeds, and favorable environmental conditions for germination are some of the reasons for a dense seed bank of E. colona in the paddocks of eastern Australia [1,2,3,4]. It has been estimated that E. colona costs the Australian grain industry AUD 14.6 million per year [5].
Paddocks using a no-till production system in eastern Australia contain a large reservoir of E. colona seeds due to the high shattering and dispersal ability of this weed [6,7]. The dormancy and persistent behavior of E. colona seeds encourage researchers to better understand its germination/emergence behavior and seed longevity under different soil and environmental conditions. Previous studies suggest that the seed decay of E. colona is faster on the soil surface, and seeds persist for a longer period in the soil at a burial depth of 10 cm [8,9]. Studies suggest that, on the soil surface, seeds of E. colona may be depleted in 2–3 years, while, at a 10 cm soil depth, seeds may remain viable for up to 6 years [6,10]. However, no information is available on the persistence behavior of E. colona seeds collected from different habitats and tested under different soil and climatic conditions.
The weed seed bank in the soil is influenced by seed rains, dormancy behavior of the seeds, and soil and environmental conditions [11,12]. Dormancy can maintain seed viability for a long period and may increase the persistence of the weed seed bank [13]. However, in addition to dormancy, other factors, such as seed burial depth, soil, and climatic conditions, can also play a role in influencing seed persistence by affecting the seed decay process [14,15]. This information suggests that the seed decay of different populations of E. colona at different soil depths must be determined under different soil and climatic conditions in order to understand the soil seed bank dynamics [16].
Echinochloa colona emerges in multiple cohorts in the cropping region of eastern Australia, and peak emergence is from November to December [6,7]. A previous study in the southern region of Queensland (Darling Downs) found about 24,750 seeds m−2 of E. colona [9]. Large seedbanks of E. colona in the soil make it crucial to develop sustainable management strategies against this weed. The number of seeds on the surface layer of soils is determined by a field’s cropping history and edaphic factors, such as moisture-holding capacity, soil pH, previous weed control practices, strategic tillage practices, and the dormancy behavior of seeds [17]. These factors, by interacting with prevailing weather conditions (rainfall and temperature), may decide the rate and time of E. colona emergence in a particular field [11,18].
Germination/emergence time of weeds may vary with populations, soil moisture levels, management practices, and environmental conditions [11,19,20]. Weed seeds in the no-till system remain near the soil surface; therefore, soil moisture conditions with the onset of rainfall may influence the emergence time of different populations of E. colona [21,22].
Echinochloa colona seeds can show a periodicity of emergence and may produce seedlings throughout the calendar year if they meet favorable conditions [2,6]. However, the peak emergence of E. colona may coincide with a particular range of diurnal temperature variations on the surface soil and cumulative growing degree days (GDD) [7,12,23]. Understanding the weed emergence pattern with the help of GDD and weather conditions could help in the decision-making process for timely weed control, increase the efficacy of control by minimizing herbicide use, and reduce the negative environmental impact created by the likelihood of repeated herbicide applications [24,25,26].
The slow-growing nature of summer pulses (e.g., mungbean) and irrigated conditions in cotton and sorghum allow a high infestation of E. colona in paddocks of eastern Australia. Glyphosate-resistant populations of E. colona in cotton fields and fallows are a challenge for weed management [4]. Herbicide efficacy in a no-till system is difficult to achieve if the weed management program solely relies on herbicides [27]. For integrated management of E. colona, a better understanding of the seed bank and germination/emergence pattern is an important step for developing sustainable strategies. Knowledge about weed seed persistence in the soil and weed emergence timing could aid in decision-making for timely management of weeds in relation to planting time, herbicide, and fertilizer application [4,25,28]. Knowledge gaps exist for seed persistence and germination behaviors of E. colona populations under varied agroecological conditions of eastern Australia.
It was hypothesized that seed longevity in relation to burial depth and the germination pattern of E. colona populations on the soil surface may vary in response to soil texture and climatic conditions. This study investigated (i) the germination pattern of four populations of E. colona over time on the soil surface at Gatton; and (ii) the seed persistence of E. colona populations buried at different depths (1 cm, 5 cm, and 15 cm) at two locations (Gatton and St George) in Queensland, Australia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Seed Collection

For the seed germination study, out of 12 populations, 10 populations (except B17/4 and B17/26) of E. colona were chosen. The populations for germination and persistence studies were collected from paddocks in the eastern region of Australia in November 2017, and details of these populations are given in Table 1. After collection, seeds were air-dried for 7 d in a screen house and then stored under dark conditions at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C) in the weed science laboratory of the Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Australia. In November 2018, populations B17/4, B17/26, and B17/35 were grown at the research farm of the University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, and fresh seeds collected from these populations were used for seed persistence study. Seed germination and the dormancy behavior of fresh seeds of these three populations (B17/4, B17/26, and B17/35) were evaluated in the laboratory by following the procedure of previous workers [29]. Seeds were found to be 100% dormant at the start of the experiment by performing a crush test [30].

2.2. Experiment 1: Germination Pattern (Field Study)

In this study, the germination behavior of 10 populations, except B17/4 and B17/26 (Table 1), of E. colona was studied at Gatton. All tested populations did not germinate well, therefore, for analysis, we focused on four populations (B17/12, B17/13, B17/7, and B17/25) that had good germination.
The study was conducted by spreading 200 seeds in rings (made up of plastic) that were placed in the field. The diameter and height of the ring were 33 cm and 8 cm, respectively. Seeds in the rings were spread on the soil surface, in three replicates, at the time of their natural seed shedding (April 2018). Seed germination was counted at 7 d intervals in the winter and the subsequent summer season as per the methodology adopted in our previous work [11]. Germinated seedlings were killed using spot herbicide (glyphosate at 740 g a.e. ha−1) applications each time seedlings were counted. Germination data were recorded for more than two years from April 2018 to November 2020.

2.3. Experiment 2: Effect of Burial Depth and Duration on Seed Fate (Field and Laboratory Study)

This study was conducted at two locations, Gatton (27.5514° S and 152.3428° E) and St George (28.3150° S and 148.6892° E), in March 2019 after the collection of fresh seeds from plants of three populations viz. B17/4, B17/26, and B17/35.
Fifty seeds of each population of E. colona were packed in nylon bags (9 cm length × 6 cm breadth) and buried in soils at depths of 1, 5, and 15 cm at the two different field locations. At both locations, each treatment had three replications. The soil properties of the respective fields at both locations are described in Table 2. We used permeable nylon bags to simulate environmental conditions similar to natural soil conditions for allowing microorganism attacks and diffusion of water and air.
The study, which commenced in March 2019, coincided with the seed-shattering time of E. colona in summer crops in eastern Australia. Bags were exhumed after 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 30 month periods of seed placement. Nongerminated seeds were retrieved from the bags, transferred into Petri dishes, and incubated at alternating day/night temperatures of 30/20 °C under light/dark conditions in the laboratory for 14 d. Optimum light and temperature conditions for incubation in the germination study were decided based on a previous germination study on this weed [2]. The seed’s fate at different burial depths over time (exhume times) was decided on the basis of germinated seed in the laboratory (dormant seed, and decayed seed) as per our previous study on wild oats [11]. The decayed component was composed of germinated seeds in the field and nonviable seeds found in the laboratory. Nonviable and nongerminated seeds were differentiated in the laboratory by using a simple crush test [29]. After the crush test, if seeds were found hard, they were considered in the category of dormant [viable), otherwise, they were considered to be nonviable seeds [30].

2.4. Weather Parameters

During the germination pattern (Experiment 1) and seed bank study (Experiment 2), weather observations, viz. minimum and maximum air temperatures and rainfall, were recorded from the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM), Australia (http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/dwo/, accessed on 2 December 2021),for both locations, St George and Gatton.

2.5. Statistical Analyses

For the germination/emergence pattern (Experiment 1), graphs were plotted using SigmaPlot 14.0 (Systat Software, San Jose, CA, USA). Daily germination counts during the germination study were converted into cumulative percentages of total seeds, and means of different populations were compared with standard errors [31].
The cumulative germination was described as a function of GDD, using Sigma Plot 14.0. Data were subjected to a three-parameter sigmoid model:
E = a/(1 + exp(−(x − x0)/b))
where E is the total cumulative germination (%) at time x, b indicates the slope, a is the maximum germination (%), and x0 is the estimated time (GDD) for 50% germination (%). Cumulative growing degree days for 80% germination were also estimated from the sigmoid model. GDD was calculated using the formula:
GDD = ((Tmax + Tmin)/2 − Tb)
where Tmax and Tmin are the maximum and minimum air temperatures, and Tb is the base temperature for summer species (10 °C) [32].
In the nylon bag study (Experiment 2), analyses were performed based on the total number of seeds (i.e., 50 seeds per replicate) for (i) germinated seeds in the laboratory at 30/20 °C (12 h light/12 h dark), (ii) decayed seeds, and (iii) dormant seeds (hard or firm seeds). ANOVA was used to determine the significant differences by analyzing the data in a factorial randomized complete block design (Supplementary Table S1)).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Germination Pattern

Germination data were recorded for more than two years from April 2018 to November 2020, and the last cohort of E. colona was observed on 18 February 2020 (7322 GDD). Germination of populations B17/13, B17/7, and B17/25 in rings started on 15 October 2018 (1228 GDD). Germination of population B17/12 started on 20 December 2018 (2148 GDD). The cumulative germination percentage of populations B17/12, B17/13, B17/7, and B17/25 on 20 December 2018 (2148 GDD) was 84, 62, 45, and 38%, respectively, and it increased to 87, 65, 66, and 56% for populations B17/12, B17/13, B17/7, B17/25, respectively, on 25 March 2019 (3725 GDD) (Figure 1). These results suggest that population B17/12 had little dormancy compared with other populations. Population B17/25 had the highest dormancy level among the four populations, and only 56% of seeds of population B17/25 germinated in one season. The remaining proportion of E. colona seeds germinated in the next season in two cohorts (31 January and 15 February 2020), after attaining sufficient soil moisture in the soil profile. The last cohort of each population was observed on 18 February 2020 (Figure 1).
Regression analysis of each population estimated that populations B17/12 and B17/25 required 2017 and 3004 GDD, respectively, for 50% germination (Figure 1, Table 3). Similarly, populations B17/12, B17/13, B17/7, and B17/25 required 2132, 3108, 4323, and 6036 GDD, respectively, for 80% germination (Figure 1). This model again predicted that the speed of germination in population B17/25 was slower compared with other populations. There were two instances in October 2018 and one instance in March 2019 when rainfall was >20 mm (Table 4). Similarly, there was one incidence in February 2020 when rainfall was >20 mm. Following each rainfall of >20 mm in each season, germination of E. colona was observed, suggesting that enough soil moisture favored the germination of this weed [31]. It was observed that, in the second season from October to December 2019, although the temperature was favorable for germination of E. colona, no germination was recorded because there was no such incidence when rainfall was >20 mm during that time (Table 4).
The variation in the germination speed of E. colona populations over time indicates that these populations have adaptive traits for dormancy behavior according to local habitat and environmental conditions. Populations B17/12 and B17/13 came from New South Wales (NSW) and population B17/25 came from St George, Queensland. It is likely that the relatively cooler temperature of NSW compared with Queensland at the seed development stage of E. colona might be the reason for having low dormancy in NSW populations [33,34,35]. Periodicity for germination in these populations suggests that moisture availability in the soil profile, temperature, light conditions, and genetic traits for dormancy could influence the germination pattern (early and late cohorts) in these populations [36]. For example, in a wild oats (Avena fatua L.) study, it was found that, when three populations (fA, fB, and fC) were grown at 15 and 20 °C during the seed maturation stage, the fA population at high temperature (20 °C) had a larger proportion of dormant seeds compared with fB and fC [37]. However, it needs to be verified whether temperature variations under different climatic conditions at the maturity stage of E. colona could enhance the dormancy of E. colona.
Previous studies revealed that early cohorts of E. colona are more prolific in seed production [4]. Therefore, emphasis should be made on the control of early cohorts of E. colona with pre-and post-emergence herbicides, especially when the spring and summer season crops are grown at wide row spacing. Late cohorts of E. colona are not very competitive, but they can produce sufficient seeds for reinfestation, especially in fallow conditions. This study demonstrated that early cohorts of E. colona could occur if sufficient rainfall is available before the planting of summer crops. These early cohorts of E. colona can be controlled with tillage or using nonselective herbicides before planting a summer crop.
The present study suggests that late cohorts (March) of E. colona in the growing season are most likely to escape from preplant nonselective herbicides, tillage, and post-emergent herbicide control treatments. In such situations, these cohorts can produce seeds and increase infestation in the next year; therefore, a season-long residual weed control measure is to be adopted. Agronomic practices, such as narrow row spacing, adjusting planting time, exploring weed competitive cultivars, etc., could provide early canopy closure to the crop and, thereby, smother the weed flora and reduce the seed bank of E. colona by reducing seed production for further infestation.
Optimizing the ability of farmers to manage E. colona by understanding its germination/emergence pattern could improve farm profitability and reduce the environmental impacts of inefficient weed management programs. In a no-till production system in Australia, where herbicides are widely used, predictive models on weed germination/emergence patterns could reduce herbicide use by avoiding applications that are too early or too late to provide any effective weed control. Tools based on the germination/emergence model can therefore reduce both costs and environmental pollution of herbicides and delay the evolution of herbicide resistance. Such tools could guide farmers to reduce tillage operations that otherwise impact soil health from soil disturbance and compaction. Germination/emergence models can guide drone operators in mapping E. colona by capturing pictures at the right time of critical weed emergence. In a nutshell, this study suggests that knowledge of the germination pattern of E. colona can help in developing a “time management” system for growers to make better weed management plans based on short-term weather forecasts.

3.2. Seed Persistence

Three populations at both locations behaved similarly for the seed decay component in relation to burial duration and burial depth. Therefore, three populations were pooled for further data analysis (Supplementary Table S1). Seed persistence of E. colona varied in relation to the interactive effect of location × burial duration × burial depth (Table 5). Averaged over populations up to 24 months of seed placement, the seed decay trend at Gatton was similar at each burial depth. The percentage of viable seeds, irrespective of burial depth, decreased from the initial 100% to 88, 63, 52, and 27% after 6, 12, 18, and 24 months of burial, respectively (Table 5). After 30 months of seed placement, the percentage of viable seeds at 1, 5, and 15 cm burial depths was 8, 26, and 15%, respectively.
At St George, after 30 months of seed placement, almost all E. colona seeds had decayed at each burial depth (Table 5). However, the decay trend of seeds with respect to burial depth varied in early exhumes. After 12 months, seed decay was faster at 1 cm (54% decayed seeds) compared to that at 5 cm (10% decayed seeds) and 15 cm (28% decayed seeds) burial depths. A similar trend was found after 24 months, and seed decay increased to 79, 48, and 55% at 1, 5, and 15 cm burial depths, respectively. After 30 months of seed placement, seed decay at Gatton was relatively lower than at St George at each burial depth. This might be attributed to a higher clay content in the St. George soil (47%) compared with the Gatton soil (31% clay), which facilitated the germination of E. colona. It was reported that E. colona dominates in a heavy-textured soil with a high clay content due to enhanced germination [38].
These observations suggest that, in general, a burial depth of 5 cm increased the persistence of seeds. However, a high clay content in the soil could cause complete decay of E. colona seeds after a certain period. This could be the reason that, after 30 months of seed placement in the soil at St George, almost all seeds had decayed at each burial depth. The Gatton soil had a low clay content compared with St George (Table 2), which could be the reason for the increased longevity of seeds at 5 and 15 cm soil depths even after 30 mo of burial.
Increased oxygen availability in buried seeds could partially remove the germination inhibitor [39], suggesting that aeration in the topsoil layer, or soil that had low clay content, facilitated seed germination. This could be the reason that seed decay at 5 and 15 cm of burial depths was faster at Gatton (low clay contents) in early exhumes compared with St George (high clay contents) when seeds were exhumed after 18 and 24 months of seed placement. This variation could also be due to differences in rainfall that affected soil moisture at different profile depths in early exhumes. At Gatton and St George, the cumulative rainfall during the 24 months of seed placement was 933 and 749 mm, respectively (http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/dwo/, accessed on 2 December 2021).
Further, the high clay in the St George soil might have influenced the oxygen availability in the soil (5 and 15 cm soil depths) and increased the seed longevity of E. colona up to 24 months [40]. Fast decay of seeds at St George after 12 months of burial at 1 cm could also be possible through seed germination owing to a favorable environment. In addition to this, predation and death through metabolic failure could also be the reason for fast seed decay at 1 cm.
A previous study in Australia reported that E. colona seeds had longer seed persistence at burial depths of 5 and 10 cm compared with those on the soil surface [31]. These authors reported that after 6 months of burial, the percentage of E. colona viable seeds at 0, 5 and 10 cm of burial depths was 19, 23, and 46%, respectively [31]. However, our study reported that seeds of E. colona could persist for more than 2 years at a 5 cm burial depth, particularly if the soil has a low clay content, as observed at Gatton.
In conclusion, E. colona had multiple cohorts from October to February (spring–summer) in Australia. The peak germination/emergence time of E. colona was observed in December. Germination correlated well with the high rainfall that occurred from October to February. Populations of E. colona differed in their germination behavior, indicating that populations might have different levels of induced dormancy. Population B17/12 had little dormancy, and 84% of seeds germinated in the first flush observed on 20 December 2018. Population B17/25 had a higher level of dormancy compared with other populations; therefore, only 56% of seeds germinated in one season. Seed persistence of E. colona was influenced by location, soil burial depth, and duration of the burial. The number of viable seeds decreased rapidly with the increasing burial depth and duration. Echinochloa colona seeds persisted for a longer period (>2 years) in the light-textured soil, particularly at the 5 cm burial depth, and persistence varied with prevailing environmental conditions at both locations. Long seed persistence of E. colona in the soil is a potential source of further infestation. Therefore, results from this study suggest that farmer follow integrated management strategies according to local soil and agro-climatic conditions that enable early control of E. colona over a three year period and restricting reinfestation of weed seeds through seed rains for complete control of E. colona in the field.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://0-www-mdpi-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/article/10.3390/agronomy13082044/s1, Table S1: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for decayed seed (%), pooled over three populations as the population effect was nonsignificant.

Author Contributions

G.M. ran the experiment and recorded the data. G.M. and B.S.C. designed the study. G.M. wrote the initial draft; B.S.C. edited the manuscript, All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received funding from Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) under Project US00084.

Data Availability Statement

All relevant data are within the Manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Agronomy 13 02044 g001
Figure 1. Germination pattern of four populations of Echinochloa colona in relation to cumulative growing degree days (starting on April 2018 and ending on April 2020). Vertical bars represent daily rainfall. (Population A: B17/12; Population B: B17/13; Population C: B17/7; Population D: B17/25).
Figure 1. Germination pattern of four populations of Echinochloa colona in relation to cumulative growing degree days (starting on April 2018 and ending on April 2020). Vertical bars represent daily rainfall. (Population A: B17/12; Population B: B17/13; Population C: B17/7; Population D: B17/25).
Agronomy 13 02044 g001
Table 1. GPS locations of 12 populations of Echinochloa colona for germination study.
Table 1. GPS locations of 12 populations of Echinochloa colona for germination study.
PopulationCoordinatesRegion
B17/427.6197° S/151.4511° EQueensland (QLD)
B17/727.5000° S/151.6967° EQLD
B17/1230.2685° S/149.8048° ENew South Wales (NSW)
B17/1330.3065° S/149.8114° ENSW
B17/1630.0909° S/149.6489° ENSW
B17/1730.3823° S/149.5968° ENSW
B17/2528.3150° S/148.6892° EQLD
B17/2628.1442° S/148.7469° EQLD
B17/3428.5830° S/150.3689° EQLD
B17/3529.9580° S/149.8339° EQLD
B17/3727.5514° S/152.3428° EQLD
B17/4927.5514° S/152.3428° EQLD
Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of soils at Gatton and St George.
Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of soils at Gatton and St George.
LocationSand (%)Silt (%)Clay (%)Organic Carbon (%)pH (CaCl2)Conductivity (ds m−1)
Gatton51.217.631.21.316.60.16
St George39.513.347.20.477.50.32
Table 3. Parametric estimates for germination behavior of selected four population of Echinochloa colona.
Table 3. Parametric estimates for germination behavior of selected four population of Echinochloa colona.
Populationabx0R2
B17/1292.7 ± 3.957.3 ± 3.32017 ± 1550.97
B17/1381.6 ± 10.2337.2 ± 2451778 ± 3380.85
B17/786.9 ± 12.1755.9 ± 4972468 ± 5840.90
B17/2592.3 ± 21.01541.3 ± 11683004 ± 12080.90
x0 is the growing degree days for 50% germination; a is the maximum seed germination (%), and b is the slope of the model; ±standard error; R2 is the coefficient of determination.
Table 4. Calendar days with >20 mm rainfall during the emergence study of Echinochloa colona at Gatton. Total rainfall at Gatton during the experimental study was 629.2 mm.
Table 4. Calendar days with >20 mm rainfall during the emergence study of Echinochloa colona at Gatton. Total rainfall at Gatton during the experimental study was 629.2 mm.
Calendar DaysCumulative Growing Degree Days (°C)Rainfall (mm)
13 October 2018120825.2
22 October 2018131520.0
18 March 2019230421.4
30 March 2019378222.4
9 February 2020717320.2
11 February 2020720530.2
Table 5. Decayed seed (%) of Echinochloa colona in relation to the interactive effect of location × burial duration × burial depth (Averaged over three populations, as the population effect was non-significant).
Table 5. Decayed seed (%) of Echinochloa colona in relation to the interactive effect of location × burial duration × burial depth (Averaged over three populations, as the population effect was non-significant).
Burial Duration (Month)Decayed Seed (%)
GattonSt George
Burial Depth
1 cm5 cm15 cm1 cm5 cm15 cm
00.00.00.00.00.00.0
38.06.910.24.23.34.7
611.110.915.84.55.34.4
1238.736.235.554.410.228.2
1852.445.14866.920.935.1
2472.773.172.979.148.055.5
3092.073.884.7100.095.897.1
LSD (0.05)12.7
LSD: Least significant difference at 5% level of significance.
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Mahajan, G.; Chauhan, B.S. Germination Pattern and Seed Longevity of Echinochloa colona (L.) Link in Eastern Australia. Agronomy 2023, 13, 2044. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13082044

AMA Style

Mahajan G, Chauhan BS. Germination Pattern and Seed Longevity of Echinochloa colona (L.) Link in Eastern Australia. Agronomy. 2023; 13(8):2044. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13082044

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mahajan, Gulshan, and Bhagirath Singh Chauhan. 2023. "Germination Pattern and Seed Longevity of Echinochloa colona (L.) Link in Eastern Australia" Agronomy 13, no. 8: 2044. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy13082044

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