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Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives

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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Wildlife".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2022) | Viewed by 40670

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Claudia Romeo

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Guest Editor

Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna – IZSLER, Brescia, Italy
Interests: Wildlife Disease Ecology; Epidemiology; Parasitology; Zoology; Wildlife Biology

Dr. Maria Vittoria Mazzamuto

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

1. Haub School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
2. Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
Interests: wildlife biology; conservation biology; mammals; biological invasions; animal behavior

Dr. Anna Katarina Schilling

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Previously Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, Scotland, UK
Interests: conservation medicine; veterinary science; zoonotic diseases; wildlife; animal welfare

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Pathogen spillover from wild species to other wildlife, domestic animals or humans has always been a common natural occurrence, as highlighted by old and new epidemics, such as the medieval plague or the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in humans. However, over the last decades anthropogenic changes ‒ e.g. climate change, growing urbanization, biological invasions ‒ appear to have favoured contact among animal species and in turn spillover and disease emergence events, making surveillance and monitoring of wildlife disease circulation even more paramount.

Wildlife biologists, veterinarians and public health professionals dealing with wildlife disease monitoring still face several logistic, methodological and ethical challenges related to field constraints, lack of information about a species’ pathogens, unknown population size or the necessity for non-invasive sampling.

This Special Issue titled “Wildlife Disease monitoring: methods and perspectives” is thus focused on innovative methodologies and approaches that may facilitate wildlife disease research and help overcome its many intrinsic issues.

We welcome novel research as well as insightful reviews and perspectives from all the different specialists involved in this field, either in a public health, ecological research or conservation context. We invite contributions from a wide range of disciplines: from ad-hoc diagnostic techniques, to the optimization of sampling methods and surveillance protocols, on both micro- and macroparasitic diseases of wild animal species.

Dr. Claudia Romeo
Dr. Maria Vittoria Mazzamuto
Dr. Anna Katarina Schilling
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

wildlife
disease surveillance
disease monitoring
spillover
pathogens
parasites
sampling methods
diagnostic techniques
zoonoses

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 198 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives

by Maria V. Mazzamuto, Anna-Katarina Schilling and Claudia Romeo

Animals 2022, 12(21), 3032; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12213032 - 04 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1510

Abstract

In the last few decades, scientific interest in wildlife diseases has steadily grown and has recently been boosted by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, which highlighted that the health of humans, livestock, wildlife and, ultimately, of the whole environment is inextricably linked [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

Research

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17 pages, 2277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Description of a Sarcoptic Mange Outbreak in Alpine Chamois Using an Enhanced Surveillance Approach

by Federica Obber, Roberto Celva, Martina Libanora, Graziana Da Rold, Debora Dellamaria, Piergiovanni Partel, Enrico Ferraro, Maria Santa Calabrese, Lia Morpurgo, Simone Roberto Rolando Pisano, Carlo Vittorio Citterio and Rudi Cassini

Animals 2022, 12(16), 2077; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12162077 - 15 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1517

Abstract

Since 1995, the Alpine chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) population of the Dolomites has been affected by sarcoptic mange with considerable management concerns. In this study, 15 years (2006–2020) of passive surveillance and demographic data were analyzed in order to describe a mange outbreak. Furthermore, an enhanced passive surveillance protocol was implemented in order to evaluate the efficiency of ordinary vs. enhanced surveillance protocol in identifying dead chamois in the field and in reaching a correct diagnosis. Our results confirm the role of mange as a determining factor for chamois mortality, while stressing the importance of a wider view on the factors affecting population dynamics. The enhanced passive surveillance protocol increased the probability of carcass retrieval and identification of the cause of death; however, its adoption may be too costly if applied for long periods on a wide scale. Passive surveillance, in both ordinary and enhanced surveillance protocol, should encompass the use of other strategies in the future to study the eco-epidemiology of the disease in wild Caprinae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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16 pages, 1164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Trueperella pyogenes Isolated from Infections in European Bison (Bison bonasus)

by Ewelina Kwiecień, Ilona Stefańska, Magdalena Kizerwetter-Świda, Dorota Chrobak-Chmiel, Anna Didkowska, Wojciech Bielecki, Wanda Olech, Krzysztof Anusz and Magdalena Rzewuska

Animals 2022, 12(14), 1825; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12141825 - 18 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1473

Abstract

Trueperella pyogenes is a Gram-positive bacterium causing purulent infections in many animal species, including the European bison. However, the data about the virulence and genetic relationships of T. pyogenes strains isolated from these wild ruminants are strongly limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of T. pyogenes infections in the European bison, and to evaluate the genetic diversity of isolates from these animals. In the time span of 10 years, 328 European bison from 16 different locations were examined. The standard bacteriological methods were used for T. pyogenes isolation and identification from clinical specimens obtained from urogenital tract infections and abscesses of different locations. The presence of genes encoding known virulence factors was investigated by PCR, and the genetic diversity of T. pyogenes strains was examined with the RAPD-PCR method. The prevalence of T. pyogenes infections was 14.6%, and the pathogen was isolated from both female (47.9% of isolates) and male (52.1% of isolates) European bison. It should be highlighted that a considerable number of strains were isolated from the prepuce and penis infections. Therefore, the role of T. pyogenes in the pathogenesis of balanoposthitis should be seriously perceived. A total of 39 T. pyogenes strains were subjected to genetic characterization. All studied strains carried the plo gene, while the nanH (25.6%), nanP (23.1%), cbpA (7.7%), fimA (97.4%), fimC (69.2%), fimE (92.3%) and fimG (15.4%) genes were present with a variable frequency among the tested strains. The virulence genotype plo/fimA/fimC/fimE was dominant. RAPD-PCR typing showed a high level of genetic diversity among European bison T. pyogenes strains, and a total of 31 different RAPD profiles were distinguished. In a few cases, the same RAPD profile was found in strains obtained from animals living in the same area. This study provided the first data about the prevalence and genetic relationships of T. pyogenes in the Polish population of European bison. However, further epidemiological investigations are needed to understand the routes of transmission and dissemination of the pathogen in these wild animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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9 pages, 951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Documentation of Exophiala spp. Isolation in Psittaciformes

by Gonçalo N. Marques, João B. Cota, Miriam O. Leal, Nuno U. Silva, Carla A. Flanagan, Lorenzo Crosta, Luís Tavares and Manuela Oliveira

Animals 2022, 12(13), 1699; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12131699 - 30 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1756

Abstract

Several fungi species are reported to act as opportunistic agents of infection in avian species. After the isolation of Exophiala spp., a dematiaceous fungal pathogen associated with a mucosal lesion in a military macaw (Ara militar), samples were collected from another 24 birds of the order Psittaciformes to study the possibility of Exophiala spp. being part of the commensal microbiota of these animals or its possible association with other clinical conditions. Swab samples were collected from the trachea and/or choanae of the birds and inoculated in Sabouraud chloramphenicol agar for fungal isolation. After incubation, fungal species were identified through their macroscopic and microscopic morphology. The presence of Exophiala spp. was identified in 15 of the 25 birds sampled and no statistical association was found between the clinical record of the birds and the fungal isolation. Our results suggest that Exophiala spp. can colonize the upper respiratory airways of psittaciform birds and has a low pathogenic potential in these animals. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report of Exophiala spp. isolation from samples of the upper respiratory tract of Psittaciformes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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12 pages, 531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Passive Disease Surveillance of Alpine Chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) in Slovenia between 2000 and 2020

by Gorazd Vengušt, Urška Kuhar, Klemen Jerina, Tanja Švara, Mitja Gombač, Petra Bandelj and Diana Žele Vengušt

Animals 2022, 12(9), 1119; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12091119 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1995

Abstract

In this paper, we provide an overview of the causes of death of Alpine chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) diagnosed in the national passive health surveillance of chamois in Slovenia. From 2000 to 2020, 284 free-ranging chamois provided by hunters were necropsied at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Depending on the results of complete necropsy, histopathological, bacteriological, parasitological, and virological examinations, a descriptive data analysis was performed. The most common causes of death in chamois were infectious diseases (82.2%), followed by non-infectious diseases (11.8%). Of all the causes of death, parasitic infections accounted for 70.3%, trauma for 9.7%, and bacterial infections for 9.3% of all cases. Less common diseases were viral infections, neoplasms, winter starvation, and metabolic disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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15 pages, 1662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Standardised Sampling Approach for Investigating Pathogens or Environmental Chemicals in Wild Game at Community Hunts

by Denny Maaz, Carl Gremse, Kaya C. Stollberg, Claudia Jäckel, Smita Sutrave, Carolyn Kästner, Birsen Korkmaz, Martin H. Richter, Niels Bandick, Julia Steinhoff-Wagner, Monika Lahrssen-Wiederholt and Anneluise Mader

Animals 2022, 12(7), 888; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12070888 - 31 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1980

Abstract

Wildlife may host pathogens and chemicals of veterinary and public health relevance, as well as pathogens with significant economic relevance for domestic livestock. In conducting research on the occurrence and distribution of these agents in wildlife, a major challenge is the acquisition of a sufficient number of samples coupled with efficient use of manpower and time. The aim of this article is to present the methodology and output of a sampling approach for game animals, which was implemented from 2017/18 to 2020/21 at drive hunts in Brandenburg, Germany. The central element was a framework agreement with the BImA, whereby federal forest officials and other hunters collected most of the samples during field dressing. Further samples of game carcasses were obtained by scientists during subsequent gathering at a collection point. Altogether, 3185 samples from 938 wild ungulates of four species were obtained for various studies analysing—in this case—food-borne agents in game animals. Sampling was representative and reflected the proportional distribution of ungulate species hunted in Brandenburg. Hunting district and hunting season strongly influenced hunting bag and hence sampling success. This sampling approach was demonstrated to be a suitable basis for monitoring programs, that can be adapted to other regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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22 pages, 4605 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Health and Mortality Monitoring in Threatened Mammals: A First Post Mortem Study of Otters (Lutra lutra L.) in Italy

by Romina Fusillo, Mariarita Romanucci, Manlio Marcelli, Marcella Massimini and Leonardo Della Salda

Animals 2022, 12(5), 609; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12050609 - 28 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3132

Abstract

Dead specimens provide valuable data for the conservation of threatened species, allowing investigations of mortality, health conditions, and demographic parameters. The Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) is a semiaquatic carnivore listed as endangered in Italy. In 2009, we started the first post mortem (PM) study of otters in Italy, through collaborative research between mammal ecologists and veterinary pathologists, using standardized protocols. Twenty-eight otters, mostly collected between 2009 and 2017, were examined. Most otters were males (67%), between 1 and 3 years old (64%), and predominantly in good nutritional condition. Adult males were significantly larger than adult females (p < 0.02), as expected for the species, although both sexes appeared to be smaller than otters examined in Central–northern Europe. The youngest sexually mature female was 3 years old. Road traffic collisions were the major cause of death, especially in young individuals, and mainly occurred in autumn–winter, particularly for females. Investigations of the scene of death contributed to revealing factors forcing otters to travel out of the water and move over the road, suggesting appropriate measures to reduce vehicle collision risk. Other causes of death included blunt chest trauma of uncertain origin, dog and conspecific attacks, or diseases of infectious or non-infectious origin, such as ulcerative gastritis, pleuropneumonia and peritonitis. Other diagnosed diseases included lymphoma. Ecto- and endoparasites were rarely detected, although we report the first documentation of heartworm and Ixodes hexagonus infestation in Italian otters. It is important to continue comprehensive, standardized PM investigations of otters in Italy to define baseline health, biometric and demographic parameters, collect biological samples for comparative analyses, and to reduce road-kill mortality. The present study suggests that the timely collection of carcasses and collaborative and coordinated research efforts are essential for obtaining useful data for the conservation of otters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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12 pages, 2288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Opportunistic Assessment of the Impact of Squirrelpox Disease Outbreaks upon a Red Squirrel Population Sympatric with Grey Squirrels in Wales

by Craig M. Shuttleworth, David Everest, Paul Holmes, Suzi Bell and Rachel Cripps

Animals 2022, 12(1), 99; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12010099 - 01 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3407

Abstract

Native red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) persisted in the coastal mainland woodlands of northern Gwynedd whilst sympatric with an invasive grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) population suppressed by culling. Squirrelpox disease in the red squirrel population was recorded in 2017 and 2020/21. An autumn 2020 outbreak was associated with only 17.4% of animals caught and marked in the preceding June known to be present in March 2021. Despite an opportunistic data collection lacking the rigour of empirical experimental design, we observed low local survival rates similar to previously published accounts reported during major squirrelpox outbreaks. The use of a conservation dog to detect red squirrel carcasses resulted in positive detection and confirmation of a temporal and spatial expansion of one disease outbreak. The study is the first in Wales to use conservation dogs and the findings reinforce the vital strategic importance of geographical isolation reducing sympatry of red with grey squirrels in European regions where the introduced congener is a source of the squirrelpox infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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25 pages, 4687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pathological Findings in Eurasian Otters (Lutra lutra) Found Dead between 2015−2020 in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany

by Simon Rohner, Peter Wohlsein, Ellen Prenger-Berninghoff, Christa Ewers, Patrick Waindok, Christina Strube, Christine Baechlein, Paul Becher, Dunja Wilmes, Volker Rickerts and Ursula Siebert

Animals 2022, 12(1), 59; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12010059 - 28 Dec 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3641

Abstract

In times of massive biodiversity loss and ongoing environmental crises, it is extremely important to ensure long-term conservation efforts of threatened species like Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra). To gain insights into the status of Northern Germany’s otter population, 92 otters found dead in Schleswig-Holstein between 2015−2020 were collected and underwent detailed dissection with the aim to establish a monitoring program for this population. Examinations followed a protocol especially designed for otters, including various biological data assessments and extended sampling. The finding sites showed a clear concentration in the Continental region. Seasonal concentration differed among the years, yet peaks were seen from fall to winter. Overall, more males than females were found, although this differed among the years. The majority of otters that could be aged were between 1–3 years. Placental scars and pregnancy were recorded in only few females. Nutritional status was good in most cases. Infectious diseases found included Vagococcus lutrae, Toxoplasma gondii, and Emmonsia spp. A major cause of death was roadkill. Known sample bias in studies focusing on roadkill was considered in the finding interpretation. Continuation of the population health investigations is mandatory to analyze potential trends and to establish an actual monitoring program for Eurasian otters in Schleswig-Holstein. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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13 pages, 1921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mycobacterium Tuberculosis and Avium Complex Investigation among Malaysian Free-Ranging Wild Boar and Wild Macaques at Wildlife-Livestock-Human Interface

by Yusuf Madaki Lekko, Azlan Che-Amat, Peck Toung Ooi, Sharina Omar, Siti Zubaidah Ramanoon, Mazlina Mazlan, Faez Firdaus Abdullah Jesse, Sabri Jasni and Mohd Firdaus Ariff Abdul-Razak

Animals 2021, 11(11), 3252; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11113252 - 13 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2180

Abstract

Wild animals are considered reservoirs, contributing to the transmission of emerging zoonotic diseases such as tuberculosis (TB). A cross-sectional study was conducted by opportunistic sampling from fresh carcasses of free-ranging wild boar (n = 30), and free-ranging wild macaques (n = 42). Stained smears from these tissues were tested for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) with Ziehl–Neelsen staining. Mycobacterial culture was conducted using Lowenstein–Jensen media and Middlebrook 7H11 agar media. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed through the detection of the 16S rRNA gene, with multiple sets of primers for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC). In wild boars, 30% (9/30; 95% Confidence Interval: 16.7–47.9%) of examined samples showed gross tuberculosis-like lesions (TBLLs). Multiple nodular lesions that were necrotic/miliary with cavitation were found in the submandibular lymph nodes, tonsils, lungs, kidney and liver, while single nodular lesions were found in the mediastinal lymph nodes, spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes. Conventional PCR on the submandibular lymphoid tissues of wild boar (nine samples with TBLLs and three non-TBLL samples) showed that 75% (9/12) were positive for Mycobacterium bovis (95% CI: 46.8–91.1), and 91% (CI: 64.6–98.5) were positive for Mycobacterium avium. For macaques, 33.3% (10/30) were positive for M. avium (95% CI: 19.2–51.2) but negative for MTBC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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12 pages, 288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How to Start Up a National Wildlife Health Surveillance Programme

by Becki Lawson, Aleksija Neimanis, Antonio Lavazza, Jorge Ramón López-Olvera, Paul Tavernier, Charalambos Billinis, James Paul Duff, Daniel T. Mladenov, Jolianne M. Rijks, Sara Savić, Gudrun Wibbelt, Marie-Pierre Ryser-Degiorgis and Thijs Kuiken

Animals 2021, 11(9), 2543; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11092543 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4758

Abstract

Whilst multiple countries in Europe have wildlife health surveillance (WHS) programmes, they vary in scope. In many countries, coordinated general surveillance at a national scale is not conducted and the knowledge of wildlife health status in Europe remains limited. Learning lessons from countries with established systems may help others to effectively implement WHS schemes. In order to facilitate information exchange, the WHS Network of the European Wildlife Disease Association organised a workshop to both collate knowledge and experience from countries that had started or expanded WHS programmes and to translate this information into practical recommendations. Presentations were given by invited representatives of European countries with different WHS levels. Events that led to the start-up and fostered growth spurts of WHS were highlighted, including action plan creation, partnership formation, organisation restructuring and appraisal by external audit. Challenges to programme development, such as a lack of funding, data sharing, infrastructural provision and method harmonisation, were explored. Recommendations to help overcome key challenges were summarised as: understanding and awareness; cross-sectoral scope; national-scale collaboration; harmonisation of methods; government support; academic support; other funding support; staff expertise and capacity; leadership, feedback and engagement; and threat mitigation and wildlife disease management. This resource may enable the development of WHS programmes in Europe and beyond. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

7 pages, 508 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

A Serological Survey of Paratuberculosis in the Polish European Bison (Bison bonasus) Population in 2018–2021

by Anna Didkowska, Marcin Ptak, Katarzyna Opałczyńska, Marlena Wojciechowska, Wanda Olech and Krzysztof Anusz

Animals 2021, 11(7), 2094; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11072094 - 14 Jul 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3067

Abstract

The European bison (Bison bonasus) is an endangered species which faces a range of health threats. As little is known of exposure of European bison to paratuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium avium spp. paratuberculosis, known to cause losses in cattle, the aim of the present study was to conduct serological survey in Polish bison herds. Between September 2018 and February 2021, blood samples were collected from 165 European bison from different regions of Poland. Samples were taken whenever the animals were immobilized (e.g., putting on telemetry collars) as well as from any dead animal. The serum samples were tested with ELISA. Three individuals, originating from different captive herds, were found to be seropositive. In conclusion, it was found that Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infections are not currently a problem in European bison, especially in free-range herds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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Review

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25 pages, 2836 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reporting of Freshwater Cyanobacterial Poisoning in Terrestrial Wildlife: A Systematic Map

by Alexandra K. Ash and Stuart Patterson

Animals 2022, 12(18), 2423; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12182423 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2529

Abstract

Global warming and over-enrichment of freshwater systems have led to an increase in harmful cyanobacterial blooms (cyanoHABs), affecting human and animal health. The aim of this systematic map was to detail the current literature surrounding cyanotoxin poisonings in terrestrial wildlife and identify possible improvements to reports of morbidity and mortality from cyanotoxins. A systematic search was conducted using the electronic databases Scopus and Web of Science, yielding 5059 published studies identifying 45 separate case reports of wildlife poisonings from North America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. Currently, no gold standard for the diagnosis of cyanotoxin intoxication exists for wildlife, and we present suggested guidelines here. These involved immunoassays and analytical chemistry techniques to identify the toxin involved, PCR to identify the cyanobacterial species involved, and evidence of ingestion or exposure to cyanotoxins in the animals affected. Of the 45 cases, our recommended methods concurred with 48.9% of cases. Most often, cases were investigated after a mortality event had already occurred, and where mitigation was implemented, only three cases were successful in their efforts. Notably, only one case of invasive cyanobacteria was recorded in this review despite invasive species being known to occur throughout the globe; this could explain the underreporting of invasive cyanobacteria. This systematic map highlights the perceived absence of robust detection, surveillance, and diagnosis of cyanotoxin poisoning in wildlife. It may be true that wildlife is less susceptible to these poisoning events; however, the true rates of poisoning are likely much more than is reported in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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24 pages, 1110 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Non-Invasive Sampling in Wildlife Disease and Health Research: What’s New?

by Anna-Katarina Schilling, Maria Vittoria Mazzamuto and Claudia Romeo

Animals 2022, 12(13), 1719; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12131719 - 02 Jul 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4427

Abstract

In the last decades, wildlife diseases and the health status of animal populations have gained increasing attention from the scientific community as part of a One Health framework. Furthermore, the need for non-invasive sampling methods with a minimal impact on wildlife has become paramount in complying with modern ethical standards and regulations, and to collect high-quality and unbiased data. We analysed the publication trends on non-invasive sampling in wildlife health and disease research and offer a comprehensive review on the different samples that can be collected non-invasively. We retrieved 272 articles spanning from 1998 to 2021, with a rapid increase in number from 2010. Thirty-nine percent of the papers were focussed on diseases, 58% on other health-related topics, and 3% on both. Stress and other physiological parameters were the most addressed research topics, followed by viruses, helminths, and bacterial infections. Terrestrial mammals accounted for 75% of all publications, and faeces were the most widely used sample. Our review of the sampling materials and collection methods highlights that, although the use of some types of samples for specific applications is now consolidated, others are perhaps still underutilised and new technologies may offer future opportunities for an even wider use of non-invasively collected samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildlife Disease Monitoring: Methods and Perspectives)

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