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The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications

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A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Wood Science and Forest Products".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 March 2023) | Viewed by 19566

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Vicelina Sousa

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Guest Editor

Forest Research Center, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
Interests: wood anatomy; tree growth; wood products; non-wood forest products; wood technology; tree ecology; mediterranean Quercus species; forest research
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Helena Pereira

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Guest Editor

Forest Research Center, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: biomass; biorefineries; non-wood products; forest-based industries; natural products; circular economy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Teresa Quilhó

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Guest Editor

Forest Research Center, Higher Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: anatomy and variability of bark and wood; leaves, roots, potential uses; ecophysical studies

Dr. Isabel Miranda

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Guest Editor

Center for Forestry Studies, Higher Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: biorefineries; non-wood products; natural products; biomass; tree growth
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

A present and urgent challenge is to follow the major guidelines set out for forest resources sustainability management in the context of both ecosystem-related global warming threats and green-economy needs. For instance, we may need to pay special attention to threatened species and lesser-known endemic species, as well as to invasive species that may be profitable when managed, so as to avoid the overexploitation of current forest species. Additionally, the full resource-use approach requires consideration of the residual materials from forest management and related industries, taking into account different tree components and non-wood products that present enormous diversity.

Specific knowledge on these diverse materials regarding their structure, anatomy, and properties is, therefore, an essential tool in assessing the potential and suitability of these different forest resources. For the most profitable forest species, research over the years has produced a number of studies related to general wood-growth tendencies and characteristics. However, different species might need to be involved in the framework of new ecosystem-oriented approaches for sustainable resource management. The high diversity within and between species also requires careful study of their variability, which may contribute toward understanding their properties and potential applications, thereby supporting improved tree selection and breeding programs.

This Special Issue aims to gather research-based data on wood as well as on non-wood forest products, with special emphasis on bark—specifically its anatomical, physical, and chemical properties and their relationships—to provide tools and background information to assess the forest-resource potential of different species. Our aim is twofold, as we look to contribute to the efforts of increasing forest sustainability and diversity by preserving species with potential for high-quality end use, and to diversify wood supply using knowledge related to wood and non-wood characteristics, and their diversity.

Dr. Vicelina Sousa
Prof. Dr. Helena Pereira
Dr. Teresa Quilhó
Dr. Isabel Miranda
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

wood
bark
non-wood products
anatomy
properties
chemical composition
properties
potential applications
unconventional species
full resource use

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

3 pages, 672 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical, and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications

by Vicelina Sousa, Isabel Miranda, Teresa Quilhó and Helena Pereira

Forests 2023, 14(10), 1988; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14101988 - 03 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 714

Abstract

Forests are continuously changing, as is the related gap in our understanding [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

13 pages, 2538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Wood Knots of Chinese Weeping Cypress on Selected Physical Properties

by Jianhua Lyu, Hongyue Qu and Ming Chen

Forests 2023, 14(6), 1148; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14061148 - 01 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1740

Abstract

The effects of wood knots of Chinese weeping cypress (Cupressus funebris Endl.) wood on selected physical and color properties were investigated. Thirty samples of live knots, dead knots, and clear wood groups were selected for experiments to determine the physical properties of wood density, wood shrinkage, wood swelling, and wood color. The experimental analysis results showed that the wood density values are in the order: dead knots > live knots > clear wood, with a significant difference in wood density between different groups (p < 0.01). In addition, the values of the air-dry volumetric wood shrinkage, air-dry volumetric wood swelling, oven-dry volumetric wood shrinkage, and oven-dry volumetric wood swelling ratios are in the order: dead knots > live knots > clear wood, being consistent with a variation in wood density. Three groups of wood colors were provided: the color of clear wood is light, the color of live knots is reddish, and the color of live knots is blackish, in relative terms. The chromatic aberration between the three groups can be identified, and the wood color difference resulted from the discrepancy in the lightness index. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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15 pages, 2328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Color and Chemical Composition of Timber Woods (Daniellia oliveri, Isoberlinia doka, Khaya senegalensis, and Pterocarpus erinaceus) from Different Locations in Southern Mali

by Mohamed Traoré and Antonio Martínez Cortizas

Forests 2023, 14(4), 767; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14040767 - 08 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1286

Abstract

Wood characteristics and properties are related to various factors connected to the biochemical processes that occur in the tree during wood formation, but also, to the interactions with the environmental conditions at the tree growing location. In addition to climatic factors, several investigations drew attention to the significance of the influence of other environmental parameters at the tree growing location. In this perspective, this work aimed to characterize the variation in color and chemical composition of timber wood from different locations in southern Mali, of trees growing under the same climatic conditions. To do so, a total of 68 grounded wood samples, from 4 timber wood species (Daniellia oliveri, Isoberlinia doka, Khaya senegalensis, and Pterocarpus erinaceus), were analyzed using CIELab color space and FTIR-ATR. Overall, the results indicated that the variation in wood color and chemical properties can be related to the local environmental conditions. Pterocarpus erinaceus presented significant differences between samples from the three areas according to the highest number of variables (color parameters, molecular composition determined by FTIR-ATR spectroscopy, and FTIR-ATR ratios). Daniellia oliveri and Khaya senegalensis, however, showed significant differences between areas of provenance for a lower number of variables. Isoberlinia doka, for its part, showed no significant differences and seems to be less sensitive to environmental factors. Furthermore, the results revealed that important differences exist between wood samples from Kati and Kéniéba. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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11 pages, 2895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Branchwood Properties of Two Tilia Species Collected from Natural Secondary Forests in Northeastern China

by Pingping Guo, Xiping Zhao, Qi Feng and Yongqiang Yang

Forests 2023, 14(4), 760; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14040760 - 07 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1000

Abstract

Tilia amurensis Rupr. and Tilia mandshurica Rupr. and Maxim. are two essential commercial species, though there is surprisingly little concern about whether their branches can be used in the current situation of a wood shortage in China. In this study, tissue proportions and fiber morphology, physical and mechanical properties, and chemical composition of the branchwood were studied and compared with stemwood to evaluate the potential for papermaking. The branchwood and stemwood showed similar cell arrangement but different tissue proportions and fiber morphology. The branchwood had more than 40% fiber proportion, 90%–97% below 0.9 mm in length, 75%–90% less than 33 in slenderness ratio, and 80% less than 1 in Runkel ratio. The branchwood was as light and soft as stemwood with a density of 0.32–0.36 g/cm³ and a compressive strength of about 30 MPa. The branchwood had 6% water extractives, 66% holocellulose, and 22% lignin for T. amurensis, 58% holocellulose and 30% lignin for T. mandshurica. The results suggest the branchwood is favorable for mechanical chipping, has the potential to obtain high pulp yield and its fibers can be mixed with wide, long and thick fibers from other tree species to produce specific paper products. In contrast, T. mandshurica branchwood may not be suitable for chemical pulping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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18 pages, 3505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical-Anatomical Characterization of Stems of Asparagaceae Species with Potential Use for Lignocellulosic Fibers and Biofuels

by Agustín Maceda, Marcos Soto-Hernández and Teresa Terrazas

Forests 2022, 13(11), 1853; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13111853 - 06 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1433

Abstract

During the last decades, the possibility of using species resistant to droughts and extreme temperatures has been analyzed for use in the production of lignocellulosic materials and biofuels. Succulent species are considered to identify their potential use; however, little is known about Asparagaceae species. Therefore, this work aimed to characterize chemically-anatomically the stems of Asparagaceae species. Stems of 10 representative species of Asparagaceae were collected, and samples were divided into two. One part was processed to analyze the chemical composition, and the second to perform anatomical observations. The percentage of extractives and lignocellulose were quantified, and crystalline cellulose and syringyl/guaiacyl lignin were quantified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Anatomy was observed with epifluorescence microscopy. The results show that there were significant differences between the various species (p < 0.05) in the percentages of extractives and lignocellulosic compounds. In addition, there were anatomical differences in fluorescence emission that correlated with the composition of the vascular tissue. Finally, through the characterization of cellulose fibers together with the proportion of syringyl and guaiacyl, it was obtained that various species of the Asparagaceae family have the potential for use in the production of lignocellulosic materials and the production of biofuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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12 pages, 2618 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Composition and Optimization of Liquefaction Parameters of Cytisus scoparius (Broom)

by Luísa Cruz-Lopes, Daniela Almeida, Yuliya Dulyanska, Idalina Domingos, José Ferreira, Anabela Fragata and Bruno Esteves

Forests 2022, 13(11), 1772; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13111772 - 27 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 957

Abstract

Invasive plants spread in such a way that they are threats to native species and to biodiversity. In this context, this work aims to determine possible valorizations of Scotch Broom Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link. This species harvested in the Viseu region was used in the present study. The eco-valorization of these renewable resources was made by conversion into liquid mixtures that can later be used in the manufacture of valuable products. For a better understanding of the results obtained, a chemical characterization of the Cytisus scoparius branches (CsB) was made. The ash content, extractives in dichloromethane, ethanol and water, lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose of the initial material were determined. Liquefaction was made in a reactor with different granulometry, temperatures and time. Results show that Broom is mainly composed of cellulose (36.1%), hemicelluloses (18.6%) and lignin (14.6%) with extractives mainly soluble in ethanol, followed by water and a small amount in dichloromethane. Ashes were around 0.69%, mainly composed of potassium and calcium. Generally, smaller size, higher solvent ratio, higher temperature and higher time of liquefaction lead to higher liquefaction. The highest percentage of liquefaction was 95% which is better than most of the lignocellulosic materials tested before. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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14 pages, 3441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Anatomical Characteristics of Virgin Cork in Quercus variabilis Grown in Korea

by Denni Prasetia, Byantara Darsan Purusatama, Jong-Ho Kim, Go-Un Yang, Jae-Hyuk Jang, Se-Yeong Park, Seung-Hwan Lee and Nam-Hun Kim

Forests 2022, 13(10), 1711; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13101711 - 17 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1433

Abstract

The quantitative anatomical characteristics of Quercus variabilis virgin cork grown in Korea were observed by scanning electron microscopy and compared with Quercus suber reproduction cork from Portugal to obtain basic data for further utilization of domestic cork resources in Korean cork industries. Q. variabilis virgin cork showed a smaller growth ring width and higher latecork percentage than Q. suber reproduction cork. Q. variabilis showed a smaller proportion of cork cells and a higher proportion of lenticular channels than Q. suber, whereas sclereid and dark-brown zones were found only in Q. variabilis. The frequency of pentagonal cork cells in the transverse and radial sections was higher in the cork of Q. suber than in Q. variabilis. In the tangential section, Q. variabilis displayed a lower frequency of heptagonal cells and a higher frequency of pentagonal cells than Q. suber.Q. variabilis cork had a smaller cell width, lumen diameter, cell wall thickness, prism base edge and area, total cell volume, and solid volume of the cell wall than Q. suber cork. The fractional solid volume and number of cells per cm³ were higher in Q. variabilis than Q. suber. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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22 pages, 2086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Similarity Analysis of Anatomical and Physical Wood Properties of Tropical Species from India, Mozambique, and East Timor

by Fernanda Bessa, Vicelina Sousa, Teresa Quilhó and Helena Pereira

Forests 2022, 13(10), 1675; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13101675 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1794

Abstract

Tropical species are highly valued timber sources showing a large diversity of wood characteristics. Since there are major concerns regarding the sustainability of these tropical species in many tropical regions, knowledge of the variability in wood properties is therefore a valuable tool to design targeted exploitation and to enlarge the wood resources base, namely by identifying alternatives for CITES-listed species. In this study, 98 tropical wood species belonging to 73 genera from India, Mozambique, and East Timor were investigated regarding wood anatomy and physical properties. Numerical taxonomy, by means of cluster analysis and principal component analysis grouped species with anatomical and physical similarities from different geographical origins. In addition to wood density, ray and vessel characteristics as well as wood moisture and wood shrinkage properties explained the main variability of these species. The contribution of wood color patterns was highlighted as consistently separating the Mozambique woods. A distinct geographical pattern was not observed, reinforcing that species from India, Mozambique, and East Timor show similar anatomical and physical wood properties, which could be useful to increase timber trade diversity. The multivariate analysis showed that species from Mozambique, such as Morus mesozygia, and Millettia stuhlmannii and Swartzia madagascariensis, could be alternatives for the CITES-listed species Cedrela odorata and Dalbergia melanoxylon, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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13 pages, 1650 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytochemical Composition of Extractives in the Inner Cork Layer of Cork Oaks with Low and Moderate Coraebus undatus Attack

by Rita Simões, Manuela Branco, Carla Nogueira, Carolina Carvalho, Conceição Santos-Silva, Suzana Ferreira-Dias, Isabel Miranda and Helena Pereira

Forests 2022, 13(9), 1517; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13091517 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1455

Abstract

The beetle Coraebus undatus, during its larval stage feeds, and excavates galleries on the cork-generating layer of Quercus suber L. trees, seriously affecting the cork quality with significant economic losses for the cork industry. This work compared the composition of the extracts present in the innermost cork layers (the belly) of cork planks from Q. suber trees with low and moderate C. undatus attack in one stand. The total extractives in the inner cork layer from trees with moderate and low C. undatus attacks were similar (on average 22% of the cork mass) with a high proportion of polar compounds (91% of the total extractives). The chemical composition of the inner cork lipophilic extractives was the same in trees infested and free of larvae, with triterpenes as the most abundant family accounting for 77% of all the compounds, predominantly friedeline. The hydrophilic extractives differed on the levels of phenolic compounds, with higher levels in the inner cork extracts of samples from trees with low attack (90.0 mg GAE g⁻¹ vs. 59.0 mg GAE g⁻¹ of inner cork mass) The potential toxic activity of phenolic compounds may have a role in decreasing the larval feeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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21 pages, 3944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Highlighting a New Morphospecies within the Dialium Genus Using Leaves and Wood Traits

by Robin Doucet, Gaël Bibang Bengono, Marius Ruwet, Isabelle Van De Vreken, Brieuc Lecart, Jean-Louis Doucet, Juan Antonio Fernandez Pierna, Philippe Lejeune, Benoit Jourez, Alain Souza and Aurore Richel

Forests 2022, 13(8), 1339; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13081339 - 22 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1913

Abstract

During inventories of lesser-known timber species in eastern Gabon, a new Dialium morphospecies was discovered. To discriminate it from the two other 2–5 leaflets Dialium species, 25 leaf traits were measured on 45 trees (16 Dialium pachyphyllum, 14 Dialium lopense, 15 Dialium sp. nov.). Nine wood chemical traits, as well as infrared spectra, were also examined on harvestable trees (four Dialium pachyphyllum and four Dialium sp. nov.). This study revealed seven discriminant leaf traits that allowed to create a field identification key. Nine significant differences (five in sapwood and four in heartwood) in terms of wood composition were highlighted. The use of the PLS-DA technique on FT-IR wood spectra allowed to accurately identify the new morphospecies. These results provide strong support for describing a new species in this genus. Implications for sustainable management of its populations are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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12 pages, 1205 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Seasonal Variation on Leaf Cuticular Waxes’ Composition in the Mediterranean Cork Oak (Quercus suber L.)

by Rita Simões, Isabel Miranda and Helena Pereira

Forests 2022, 13(8), 1236; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13081236 - 04 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1463

Abstract

Quercus suber L. (cork oak) leaves were analyzed along one annual cycle for cuticular wax content and chemical composition. This species, well adapted to the long dry summer conditions prevailing in the Mediterranean, has a leaf life span of about one year. The cuticular wax revealed a seasonal variation with a coverage increase from the newly expanded leaves (115.7 µg/cm² in spring) to a maximum value in fully expanded leaves (235.6 µg/cm² after summer). Triterpenoids dominated the wax composition throughout the leaf life cycle, corresponding in young leaves to 26 µg/cm² (22.6% of the total wax) and 116.0 µg/cm² (49% of the total wax) in mature leaves, with lupeol constituting about 70% of this fraction. The total aliphatic compounds increased from 39 µg/cm² (young leaves) to 71 µg/cm² (mature leaves) and then decreased to 22 µg/cm² and slightly increased during the remaining period. The major aliphatic compounds were fatty acids, mostly with C₁₆ (hexadecanoic acid) and C₂₈ (octacosanoic acid) chain lengths. Since pentacyclic triterpenoids are located almost exclusively within the cutin matrix (intracuticular wax), the increase in the cyclic-to-acyclic component ratio after summer shows an extensive deposition of intracuticular waxes in association with the establishment of mechanical and thermal stability and of water barrier properties in the mature leaf cuticle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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13 pages, 3370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anatomical, Physical, Chemical, and Biological Durability Properties of Two Rattan Species of Different Diameter Classes

by Sheikh Ali Ahmed, Reza Hosseinpourpia, Christian Brischke and Stergios Adamopoulos

Forests 2022, 13(1), 132; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13010132 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2801

Abstract

Rattan cane is an important forest product with economic value. Its anatomical, physical, and biological properties vary with the cane height. This makes it difficult to select the appropriate cane diameter for harvesting. Understanding the material properties of rattan cane with different diameter sizes is important to enhance its utilization and performance for different end uses. Thus, the present study was performed on two rattan species, Calamus zollingeri and Calamus ornatus, at two different cane heights (bottom/mature and top/juvenile). Calamus zollingeri was studied at diameter classes of 20 mm and 30 mm, while Calamus ornatus was analyzed at a diameter class of 15 mm. The anatomical properties, basic density, volumetric swelling, dynamic moisture sorption, and biological durability of rattan samples were studied. The results showed that C. zollingeri with a 20 mm diameter exhibited the highest basic density, hydrophobicity, dimensional stability, and durability against mold and white-rot (Trametes versicolor) fungi. As confirmed by anatomical studies, this could be due to the higher vascular bundle frequency and longer thick-walled fibers that led to a denser structure than in the other categories. In addition, the lignin content might have a positive effect on the mass loss of different rattan canes caused by white-rot decay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity of Wood and Non-Wood Forest Products: Anatomical, Physical and Chemical Properties, and Potential Applications)

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