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Plant and Fungal Interactions
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Plant and Fungal Interactions

A special issue of Journal of Fungi (ISSN 2309-608X). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental and Ecological Interactions of Fungi".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 76983

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nuria Ferrol

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CSIC, Dept Microbiol Suelo & Sistemas Simbiot, Estn Expt Zaidin, C Prof Albareda 1, E-18008 Granada, Spain
Interests: arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; nutrient transport; heavy metal; plant-fungal interactions; symbiosis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Concepción Azcón Aguilar

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CSIC - Estación Experimental del Zaidín (EEZ), Granada, Spain
Interests: arbuscular mycorrhizas (AM); plant-microbe interactions; AM fungal diversity; plant growth promoting microorganisms; sustainable plant production systems

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Throughout their existence on Earth, plants and fungi have been closely associated. Plant-fungal interactions span a vast continuum from beneficial to detrimental and play a major role in natural and agricultural ecosystems. Beneficial or mutualistic plant-colonising fungi are widely distributed and provide benefits to the plant by supplying nutrients, increasing plant stress tolerance or disease resistance. This is the case of mycorrhizal fungi, a group of diverse fungal taxa, which associate with roots of about 90% of all plant species and provide plants with mineral nutrients in exchange for fixed carbon. By contrast, plant pathogenic fungi are a major threat to crop production and food security. To fight these detrimental interactions, plants have evolved an array of defence mechanisms. Research on the mechanisms underlying both types of interactions and the subtle differences that determine the different outcomes has become one of the most interesting fields in plant sciences. The findings of these studies can be exploited to optimize beneficial interactions and to develop new plant protection strategies. This Special Issue is aimed at compiling research, review and opinion articles covering new scientific discoveries in mutualistic and pathogenic plant-fungal interactions. Articles covering new insights into the physiology, biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics and ecology of the fungal partner, the molecular mechanisms involved in the plant-fungal interaction, the effect of the interaction on plant fitness under different environmental conditions and into biotechnological applications are welcomed.

Dr. Nuria Ferrol
Prof. Dr. Concepción Azcón Aguilar
Guest Editors

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23 pages, 13708 KiB  
Article
Characterization of the NRAMP Gene Family in the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Rhizophagus irregularis
by Víctor Manuel López-Lorca, María Jesús Molina-Luzón and Nuria Ferrol
J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 592; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8060592 - 31 May 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1984
Abstract
Transporters of the NRAMP family are ubiquitous metal-transition transporters, playing a key role in metal homeostasis, especially in Mn and Fe homeostasis. In this work, we report the characterization of the NRAMP family members (RiSMF1, RiSMF2, RiSMF3.1 and RiSMF3.2) [...] Read more.
Transporters of the NRAMP family are ubiquitous metal-transition transporters, playing a key role in metal homeostasis, especially in Mn and Fe homeostasis. In this work, we report the characterization of the NRAMP family members (RiSMF1, RiSMF2, RiSMF3.1 and RiSMF3.2) of the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus Rhizophagus irregularis. Phylogenetic analysis of the NRAMP sequences of different AM fungi showed that they are classified in two groups, which probably diverged early in their evolution. Functional analyses in yeast revealed that RiSMF3.2 encodes a protein mediating Mn and Fe transport from the environment. Gene-expression analyses by RT-qPCR showed that the RiSMF genes are differentially expressed in the extraradical (ERM) and intraradical (IRM) mycelium and differentially regulated by Mn and Fe availability. Mn starvation decreased RiSMF1 transcript levels in the ERM but increased RiSMF3.1 expression in the IRM. In the ERM, RiSMF1 expression was up-regulated by Fe deficiency, suggesting a role for its encoded protein in Fe-deficiency alleviation. Expression of RiSMF3.2 in the ERM was up-regulated at the early stages of Fe toxicity but down-regulated at later stages. These data suggest a role for RiSMF3.2 not only in Fe transport but also as a sensor of high external-Fe concentrations. Both Mn- and Fe-deficient conditions affected ERM development. While Mn deficiency increased hyphal length, Fe deficiency reduced sporulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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15 pages, 2719 KiB  
Article
Stimulation of Hyphal Ramification and Sporulation in Funneliformis mosseae by Root Extracts Is Host Phosphorous Status-Dependent
by Xueguang Sun, Jingwei Feng and Jing Shi
J. Fungi 2022, 8(2), 181; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8020181 - 11 Feb 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2621
Abstract
A simulation of the environment inhabited by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi could provide clues as to how to cultivate these obligate biotrophs axenically. Host intraradical and rhizospheric environments, root extracts and exudates in particular, would be crucial for AM fungi to complete their [...] Read more.
A simulation of the environment inhabited by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi could provide clues as to how to cultivate these obligate biotrophs axenically. Host intraradical and rhizospheric environments, root extracts and exudates in particular, would be crucial for AM fungi to complete their life cycles. In this study, we analyzed and compared the effects of root exudates (RE) and root extracts (RET) of white clover (Trifolium repens) on the asymbiotic growth of the AM fungus Funneliformis mosseae in vitro, and furtherly analyzed the chemical components of different RET with the LC-MS/MS technique in order to establish an asymbiotic cultivation system for this important and hardly domesticated AM fungus. RET is superior to RE in stimulating spore germination, hyphal elongation and branching, and secondary spore formation (p < 0.05). RET-induced effects were dependent on phosphate supplement levels, and the RET obtained following the treatment with low levels of phosphorus significantly promoted hyphal growth and sporulation (p < 0.05). A few newly formed secondary spores showed limited colonization of white clover roots. The low phosphorus-induced effects could be ascribed to the metabolic adjustment (mainly lipids and organic acids) of white clover roots under low phosphate conditions. Our findings demonstrate that the low phosphate-induced RET boosts the asymbiotic growth of AM fungus, and thus offers an alternative way to fulfill the life cycle of AM fungi asymbiotically. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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13 pages, 1581 KiB  
Article
Host-Specific Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Two Caragana Species in Desert Grassland
by Xin Guo, Zhen Wang, Jing Zhang, Ping Wang, Yaoming Li and Baoming Ji
J. Fungi 2021, 7(12), 1077; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7121077 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2174
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which form symbioses with most land plants, could benefit their hosts and potentially play important roles in revegetation of degraded lands. However, their application in revegetation of desert grasslands still faces challenges and uncertainties due to the unclear specificity [...] Read more.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which form symbioses with most land plants, could benefit their hosts and potentially play important roles in revegetation of degraded lands. However, their application in revegetation of desert grasslands still faces challenges and uncertainties due to the unclear specificity of AMF-plant interactions. Here, Caragana korshinskii and Caragana microphylla were inoculated with either conspecific (home) or heterospecific (away) AM fungal communities from the rhizosphere of three common plant species (C. korshinskii, C. microphylla and Hedysarum laeve) in Kubuqi Desert, China. AMF communities of the inocula and their home and away effects on growth and nutrition status of two Caragana species were examined. Results showed that AMF communities of the three inocula from C. korshinskii, H. laeve and C. microphylla were significantly different, and were characterized by high abundance of Diversispora, Archaeospora, and Glomus, respectively. The shoot biomass, photosynthetic rate, foliar N and P contents of C. korshinskii only significantly increased under home AMF inoculation by 167.10%, 73.55%, 9.24%, and 23.87%, respectively. However, no significant effects of AMF on C. microphylla growth were found, regardless of home or away AMF. Positive correlations between C. korshinskii biomass and the abundance of AMF genus Diversispora were found. Our study showed strong home advantage of using native AMF community to enhance C. korshinskii growth in the desert and presented a potentially efficient way to use native AMF in restoration practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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22 pages, 11804 KiB  
Article
Insights of the Neofusicoccum parvum–Liquidambar styraciflua Interaction and Identification of New Cysteine-Rich Proteins in Both Species
by Rebeca Vázquez-Avendaño, José Benjamín Rodríguez-Haas, Hugo Velázquez-Delgado, Greta Hanako Rosas-Saito, Eric Edmundo Hernández-Domínguez and Diana Sánchez-Rangel
J. Fungi 2021, 7(12), 1027; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7121027 - 30 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1920
Abstract
Neofusicoccum parvum belongs to the Botryosphaeriaceae family, which contains endophytes and pathogens of woody plants. In this study, we isolated 11 strains from diseased tissue of Liquidambar styraciflua. Testing with Koch’s postulates—followed by a molecular approach—revealed that N. parvum was the most [...] Read more.
Neofusicoccum parvum belongs to the Botryosphaeriaceae family, which contains endophytes and pathogens of woody plants. In this study, we isolated 11 strains from diseased tissue of Liquidambar styraciflua. Testing with Koch’s postulates—followed by a molecular approach—revealed that N. parvum was the most pathogenic strain. We established an in vitro pathosystem (L. styraciflua foliar tissue–N. parvum) in order to characterize the infection process during the first 16 days. New CysRPs were identified for both organisms using public transcriptomic and genomic databases, while mRNA expression of CysRPs was analyzed by RT-qPCR. The results showed that N. parvum caused disease symptoms after 24 h that intensified over time. Through in silico analysis, 5 CysRPs were identified for each organism, revealing that all of the proteins are potentially secreted and novel, including two of N. parvum proteins containing the CFEM domain. Interestingly, the levels of the CysRPs mRNAs change during the interaction. This study reports N. parvum as a pathogen of L. styraciflua for the first time and highlights the potential involvement of CysRPs in both organisms during this interaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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18 pages, 2016 KiB  
Article
Extracellular Vesicles from Fusarium graminearum Contain Protein Effectors Expressed during Infection of Corn
by Donovan Garcia-Ceron, Rohan G. T. Lowe, James A. McKenna, Linda M. Brain, Charlotte S. Dawson, Bethany Clark, Oliver Berkowitz, Pierre Faou, James Whelan, Mark R. Bleackley and Marilyn A. Anderson
J. Fungi 2021, 7(11), 977; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7110977 - 17 Nov 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3565
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum (Fgr) is a devastating filamentous fungal pathogen that causes diseases in cereals, while producing mycotoxins that are toxic for humans and animals, and render grains unusable. Low efficiency in managing Fgr poses a constant need for identifying novel [...] Read more.
Fusarium graminearum (Fgr) is a devastating filamentous fungal pathogen that causes diseases in cereals, while producing mycotoxins that are toxic for humans and animals, and render grains unusable. Low efficiency in managing Fgr poses a constant need for identifying novel control mechanisms. Evidence that fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) from pathogenic yeast have a role in human disease led us to question whether this is also true for fungal plant pathogens. We separated EVs from Fgr and performed a proteomic analysis to determine if EVs carry proteins with potential roles in pathogenesis. We revealed that protein effectors, which are crucial for fungal virulence, were detected in EV preparations and some of them did not contain predicted secretion signals. Furthermore, a transcriptomic analysis of corn (Zea mays) plants infected by Fgr revealed that the genes of some of the effectors were highly expressed in vivo, suggesting that the Fgr EVs are a mechanism for the unconventional secretion of effectors and virulence factors. Our results expand the knowledge on fungal EVs in plant pathogenesis and cross-kingdom communication, and may contribute to the discovery of new antifungals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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14 pages, 3667 KiB  
Article
Sand Particle Size and Phosphorus Amount Affect Rhizophagus irregularis Spore Production Using In Vitro Propagated Spore as a Starter Inoculum in Rhizosphere of Maize (Zea mays) Plantlets
by Pulak Maitra, Jubair Al-Rashid, Nirmal Chandra Barman, Md. Niuz Morshed Khan, Dipa Mandal, Noorain Munim Rasul, Apu Chowdhury, Ahmed H. El-Sappah and Jia Li
J. Fungi 2021, 7(10), 846; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7100846 - 09 Oct 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4080
Abstract
Microbial inoculants, particularly arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, have great potential for sustainable crop management. In this study, monoxenic culture of indigenous R. irregularis was developed and used as a tool to determine the minimum phosphorus (P) level for maximum spore production under the [...] Read more.
Microbial inoculants, particularly arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, have great potential for sustainable crop management. In this study, monoxenic culture of indigenous R. irregularis was developed and used as a tool to determine the minimum phosphorus (P) level for maximum spore production under the in vitro conditions. This type of starter AM fungal inoculum was then applied to an in vivo substrate-based mass-cultivation system. Spore production, colonization rate, and plant growth were examined in maize (Zea mays L.) plant inoculated with the monoxenic culture of R. irregularis in sand graded by particle size with varying P levels in nutrient treatments. In the in vitro culture, the growth medium supplemented with 20 µM P generated the maximum number of spores (400 spores/mL media) of R. irregularis. In the in vivo system, the highest sporulation (≈500 spores g−1 sand) occurred when we added a half-strength Hoagland solution (20 µM P) in the sand with particle size between 500 µm and 710 µm and omitted P after seven weeks. However, the highest colonization occurred when we added a half-strength Hoagland solution in the sand with particle sizes between 710 µm and 1000 µm and omitted P after seven weeks. This study suggests that substrate particle size and P reduction and regulation might have a strong influence on the maximization of sporulation and colonization of R. irregularis in sand substrate-based culture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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24 pages, 5362 KiB  
Article
Metabolic Profiling and Metabolite Correlation Network Analysis Reveal That Fusarium solani Induces Differential Metabolic Responses in Lotus japonicus and Lotus tenuis against Severe Phosphate Starvation
by Amira Susana Nieva, Fernando Matías Romero, Alexander Erban, Pedro Carrasco, Oscar Adolfo Ruiz and Joachim Kopka
J. Fungi 2021, 7(9), 765; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7090765 - 16 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3079
Abstract
Root fungal endophytes are essential mediators of plant nutrition under mild stress conditions. However, variations in the rhizosphere environment, such as nutrient depletion, could result in a stressful situation for both partners, shifting mutualistic to nonconvenient interactions. Mycorrhizal fungi and dark septate endophytes [...] Read more.
Root fungal endophytes are essential mediators of plant nutrition under mild stress conditions. However, variations in the rhizosphere environment, such as nutrient depletion, could result in a stressful situation for both partners, shifting mutualistic to nonconvenient interactions. Mycorrhizal fungi and dark septate endophytes (DSEs) have demonstrated their ability to facilitate phosphate (Pi) acquisition. However, few studies have investigated other plant–fungal interactions that take place in the root environment with regard to phosphate nutrition. In the present research work, we aimed to analyze the effect of extreme Pi starvation and the fungal endophyte Fusarium solani on the model Lotus japonicus and the crop L. tenuis. We conducted metabolomics analysis based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) on plant tissues under optimal conditions, severe Pi starvation and F.solani presence. By combining statistical and correlation network analysis strategies, we demonstrated the differential outcomes of the two plant species against the combination of treatments. The combination of nutritional stress and Fusarium presence activated significant modifications in the metabolism of L. japonicus affecting the levels of sugars, polyols and some amino acids. Our results display potential markers for further inspection of the factors related to plant nutrition and plant–fungal interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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11 pages, 1744 KiB  
Article
The Change in Fatty Acids and Sugars Reveals the Association between Trifoliate Orange and Endophytic Fungi
by Lu-Lu Meng, Rui-Cheng Liu, Liu Yang, Ying-Ning Zou, Anoop Kumar Srivastava, Kamil Kuča, Abeer Hashem, Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah, Bhoopander Giri and Qiang-Sheng Wu
J. Fungi 2021, 7(9), 716; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7090716 - 31 Aug 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2609
Abstract
Endophytes have the ability to improve plant nutrition alongside their agronomic performance, among which arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi provide the most benefits to their host. Previously, we reported for the first time that an arbuscular mycorrhizal-like fungus Piriformospora indica had the ability to colonize [...] Read more.
Endophytes have the ability to improve plant nutrition alongside their agronomic performance, among which arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi provide the most benefits to their host. Previously, we reported for the first time that an arbuscular mycorrhizal-like fungus Piriformospora indica had the ability to colonize roots of trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata) and conferred positive effects on nutrient acquisition. Present study showed the changes in fatty acids and sugars to unravel the physiological and symbiotic association of trifoliate orange with P. indica and an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus, Funneliformis mosseae singly or in combination. All the endophytic fungi collectively increased fructose, glucose, and sucrose content in leaves and roots, along with a relatively higher increase with P. indica inoculation than with F. mosseae alone or dual inoculation. Treatment with P. indica increased the concentration of part unsaturated fatty acids such as C18:3N6, C20:2, C20:3N6, C20:4N6, C20:3N3, C20:5N3, C22:1N9, and C24:1. Additionally, P. indica induced the increase in the concentration of part saturated fatty acids such as C6:0, C8:0, C13:0, C14:0, and C24:0. F. mosseae hardly changed the content of fatty acids, except for increase in C14:0 and C20:5N3. Double inoculation only reduced the C21:0, C10:0, C12:0, C18:3N3, and C18:1 content and increased the C20:5N3 content. These endophytic fungi up-regulated the root PtFAD2, PtFAD6, PtΔ9, and PtΔ15 gene expression level, coupled with a higher expression of PtFAD2 and PtΔ9 by P. indica than by F. mosseae. It was concluded that P. indica exhibited a stronger response, for sugars and fatty acids, than F. mosseae on trifoliate orange. Such results also reveal the Pi (an in vitro culturable fungus) as a bio-stimulator applying to citriculture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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25 pages, 4899 KiB  
Article
Physcomitrium patens Infection by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides: Understanding the Fungal–Bryophyte Interaction by Microscopy, Phenomics and RNA Sequencing
by Adriana Otero-Blanca, Yordanis Pérez-Llano, Guillermo Reboledo-Blanco, Verónica Lira-Ruan, Daniel Padilla-Chacon, Jorge Luis Folch-Mallol, María del Rayo Sánchez-Carbente, Inés Ponce De León and Ramón Alberto Batista-García
J. Fungi 2021, 7(8), 677; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7080677 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4667
Abstract
Anthracnose caused by the hemibiotroph fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a devastating plant disease with an extensive impact on plant productivity. The process of colonization and disease progression of C. gloeosporioides has been studied in a number of angiosperm crops. To better understand the [...] Read more.
Anthracnose caused by the hemibiotroph fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a devastating plant disease with an extensive impact on plant productivity. The process of colonization and disease progression of C. gloeosporioides has been studied in a number of angiosperm crops. To better understand the evolution of the plant response to pathogens, the study of this complex interaction has been extended to bryophytes. The model moss Physcomitrium patens Hedw. B&S (former Physcomitrella patens) is sensitive to known bacterial and fungal phytopathogens, including C. gloeosporioides, which cause infection and cell death. P. patens responses to these microorganisms resemble that of the angiosperms. However, the molecular events during the interaction of P. patens and C. gloeosporioides have not been explored. In this work, we present a comprehensive approach using microscopy, phenomics and RNA-seq analysis to explore the defense response of P. patens to C. gloeosporioides. Microscopy analysis showed that appressoria are already formed at 24 h after inoculation (hai) and tissue colonization and cell death occur at 24 hai and is massive at 48 hai. Consequently, the phenomics analysis showed progressing browning of moss tissues and impaired photosynthesis from 24 to 48 hai. The transcriptomic analysis revealed that more than 1200 P. patens genes were differentially expressed in response to Colletotrichum infection. The analysis of differentially expressed gene function showed that the C. gloeosporioides infection led to a transcription reprogramming in P. patens that upregulated the genes related to pathogen recognition, secondary metabolism, cell wall reinforcement and regulation of gene expression. In accordance with the observed phenomics results, some photosynthesis and chloroplast-related genes were repressed, indicating that, under attack, P. patens changes its transcription from primary metabolism to defend itself from the pathogen. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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18 pages, 6091 KiB  
Article
The Endophytic Fungus Piriformospora Indica-Assisted Alleviation of Cadmium in Tobacco
by Zhenzhu Su, Yulan Zeng, Xiaoli Li, Anand Babu Perumal, Jianan Zhu, Xuanjun Lu, Mengdi Dai, Xiaohong Liu and Fucheng Lin
J. Fungi 2021, 7(8), 675; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7080675 - 20 Aug 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2859
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that the endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica helps plants overcome various abiotic stresses, especially heavy metals. However, the mechanism of heavy metal tolerance has not yet been elucidated. Here, the role of P. indica in alleviating cadmium (Cd) toxicities in tobacco [...] Read more.
Increasing evidence suggests that the endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica helps plants overcome various abiotic stresses, especially heavy metals. However, the mechanism of heavy metal tolerance has not yet been elucidated. Here, the role of P. indica in alleviating cadmium (Cd) toxicities in tobacco was investigated. It was found that P. indica improved Cd tolerance to tobacco, increasing Cd accumulation in roots but decreasing Cd accumulation in leaves. The colonization of P. indica altered the subcellular repartition of Cd, increasing the Cd proportion in cell walls while reducing the Cd proportion in membrane/organelle and soluble fractions. During Cd stress, P. indica significantly enhanced the peroxidase (POD) activity and glutathione (GSH) content in tobacco. The spatial distribution of GSH was further visualized by Raman spectroscopy, showing that GSH was distributed in the cortex of P. indica-inoculated roots while in the epidermis of the control roots. A LC-MS/MS-based label-free quantitative technique evaluated the differential proteomics of P. indica treatment vs. control plants under Cd stress. The expressions of peroxidase, glutathione synthase, and photosynthesis-related proteins were significantly upregulated. This study provided extensive evidence for how P. indica enhances Cd tolerance in tobacco at physiological, cytological, and protein levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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21 pages, 3167 KiB  
Article
Genome-Wide Expression Profiling of Small RNAs in Indian Strain of Rhizoctonia solani AG1-1A Reveals Differential Regulation of milRNAs during Pathogenesis and Crosstalk of Gene Regulation
by Naresh Babu Prathi, Chagamreddy Venkata Durga Rani, Sena Munuswamy Balachandran, Vellaisamy Prakasam, Yeshala Chandra Mohan, Sanivarapu Nagalakshmi, Sunil K. Srivastava, Raman Meenakshi Sundaram and Satendra K. Mangrauthia
J. Fungi 2021, 7(7), 561; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7070561 - 14 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2599
Abstract
Rhizoctonia solani AG1-1A is a necrotrophic fungus that causes sheath blight disease in rice. The reliable resistant source against this phytopathogenic fungus is not available in the gene pool of rice. Better understanding of pathogen genomics and gene regulatory networks are critical to [...] Read more.
Rhizoctonia solani AG1-1A is a necrotrophic fungus that causes sheath blight disease in rice. The reliable resistant source against this phytopathogenic fungus is not available in the gene pool of rice. Better understanding of pathogen genomics and gene regulatory networks are critical to devise alternate strategies for developing resistance against this noxious pathogen. In this study, miRNA-like RNAs (milRNAs) of an Indian strain of R. solani were identified by deep sequencing of small RNAs. We identified 128 known and 22 novel milRNAs from 20,963,123 sequence reads. These milRNAs showed 1725 target genes in the fungal genome which include genes associated with growth, development, pathogenesis and virulence of R. solani. Notably, these fungal milRNAs showed their target genes in host (rice) genome also which were later verified by qRT-PCR. The host target genes are associated with auxin metabolism, hypersensitive response, defense genes, and genes related to growth and development of rice. Osa-vacuolar-sorting receptor precursor: Rhi-milR-13, Osa-KANADI1:Rhi-milR-124, Osa-isoflavone reductase: Rhi-milR-135, Osa-nuclear transcription factor Y:Rhi-milR-131, Osa-NB-ARC domain containing protein: Rhi-milR-18, and Osa-OsFBX438: Rhi-milR-142 are notable potential regulons of host target genes: fungal milRNAs that need to be investigated for better understanding of the crosstalk of RNAi pathways between R. solani and rice. The detailed expression analysis of 17 milRNAs by qRT-PCR was analysed during infection at different time points of inoculation, at different growth stages of the host, in four different genotypes of the host, and also in four different strains of fungi which revealed differential regulation of milRNAs associated with pathogenesis and virulence. This study highlights several important findings on fungal milRNAs which need to be further studied and characterized to decipher the gene expression and regulation of this economically important phytopathogen. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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15 pages, 2987 KiB  
Article
The Pacific Tree-Parasitic Fungus Cyclocybe parasitica Exhibits Monokaryotic Fruiting, Showing Phenotypes Known from Bracket Fungi and from Cyclocybe aegerita
by Hannah Elders and Florian Hennicke
J. Fungi 2021, 7(5), 394; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7050394 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4972
Abstract
Cyclocybe parasitica is a wood-destroying parasitic edible mushroom growing on diverse broad-leafed trees in New Zealand and other Pacific areas. Recent molecular systematics of European Cyclocybe aegerita, a newly delimited Asian phylum and of related species, corroborated the distinction of the chiefly [...] Read more.
Cyclocybe parasitica is a wood-destroying parasitic edible mushroom growing on diverse broad-leafed trees in New Zealand and other Pacific areas. Recent molecular systematics of European Cyclocybe aegerita, a newly delimited Asian phylum and of related species, corroborated the distinction of the chiefly saprobic cultivated edible mushroom C. aegerita from C. parasitica. Here, we show that C. parasitica exhibits a morpho-physiological trait characteristic to its European cousin, i.e., monokaryotic fruiting sensu stricto (basidiome formation without mating). Monokaryotic fruiting structures formed by C. parasitica ICMP 11668-derived monokaryons were categorized into four phenotypes. One of them displays ulcer-like structures previously reported from bracket fungi. Histology of dikaryotic and monokaryotic C. parasitica fruiting structures revealed anatomical commonalities and differences between them, and towards monokaryotic fruiting structures of C. aegerita. Mating experiments with C. parasitica strains representative of each fruiting phenotype identified compatible sibling monokaryons. Given reports on hypothetically monokaryotic basidiome field populations of ‘C. aegerita sensu lato’, it seems worthwhile to prospectively investigate whether monokaryotic fruiting s.str. occurs in nature. Sampling from such populations including karyotyping, comparative -omics, and competition assays may help to answer this question and provide evidence whether this trait may confer competitive advantages to a species capable of it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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23 pages, 4611 KiB  
Article
Molecular and Environmental Triggering Factors of Pathogenicity of Fusarium oxysporum and F. solani Isolates Involved in the Coffee Corky-Root Disease
by Roberto Gamboa-Becerra, Daniel López-Lima, Luc Villain, Jean-Christophe Breitler, Gloria Carrión and Damaris Desgarennes
J. Fungi 2021, 7(4), 253; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7040253 - 27 Mar 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2466
Abstract
Coffee corky-root disease causes serious damages to coffee crop and is linked to combined infection of Fusarium spp. and root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp. In this study, 70 Fusarium isolates were collected from both roots of healthy coffee plants and with corky-root disease symptoms. [...] Read more.
Coffee corky-root disease causes serious damages to coffee crop and is linked to combined infection of Fusarium spp. and root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp. In this study, 70 Fusarium isolates were collected from both roots of healthy coffee plants and with corky-root disease symptoms. A phylogenetic analysis, and the detection of pathogenicity SIX genes and toxigenicity Fum genes was performed for 59 F. oxysporum and 11 F. solani isolates. Based on the molecular characterization, seven F. oxysporum and three F. solani isolates were assessed for their pathogenicity on coffee seedlings under optimal watering and water stress miming root-knot nematode effect on plants. Our results revealed that a drastic increment of plant colonization capacity and pathogenicity on coffee plants of some Fusarium isolates was caused by water stress. The pathogenicity on coffee of F. solani linked to coffee corky-root disease and the presence of SIX genes in this species were demonstrated for the first time. Our study provides evidence for understanding the pathogenic basis of F. oxysporum and F. solani isolates on coffee and revealed the presence of SIX and Fum genes as one of their pathogenicity-related mechanisms. We also highlight the relevance of chlorophyll, a fluorescence as an early and high-throughput phenotyping tool in Fusarium pathogenicity studies on coffee. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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17 pages, 7294 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Commercial Fungicides against Onion (Allium cepa) Basal Rot Disease Caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cepae and Fusarium acutatum
by Ofir Degani and Ben Kalman
J. Fungi 2021, 7(3), 235; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7030235 - 21 Mar 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3700
Abstract
The onion basal rot disease is a worldwide threat caused by species of the genus Fusarium. Today, Israel’s control of this disease is limited to a four-year growth cycle and Metam sodium soil disinfection. Here, commercial chemical fungicides were evaluated as control treatments [...] Read more.
The onion basal rot disease is a worldwide threat caused by species of the genus Fusarium. Today, Israel’s control of this disease is limited to a four-year growth cycle and Metam sodium soil disinfection. Here, commercial chemical fungicides were evaluated as control treatments against two of the primary pathogens involved, F. oxysporum f. sp. cepae and F. Acutatum. Out of 10 fungicides tested on culture plates, 3, Prochloraz, Azoxystrobin + Tebuconazole, and Fludioxonil + Sedaxen, had strong inhibitory effects on mycelial growth and were selected and tested in seeds in vitro. The preparations were applied as a seed coating and tested in two commercial cultivars, Riverside (Orlando, white cv.) and Noam (red cv.). Prochloraz (0.3% w/w concentration), the most promising compound, was efficient in reducing the Noam cv. sprouts’ disease symptoms. This preparation had no harmful in situ-toxicity effect and did not influence the plants’ seed germination and early development. In Noam cv. potted 30-day-old sprouts, the Prochloraz treatment was able to reduce the harmful impact of F. oxysporum f. sp. cepae. on the seedlings’ wet biomass, but was not effective in the Riverside cv. or against the F. acutatum pathogen. This suggests that future protective strategies must include an effective protective suit tailored to each of the pathogen species involved and the onion cultivar. The methods presented in this work can be applied for rapidly scanning multiple compounds while gradually ruling out ineffective ones. Eventually, this screening will enable field testing of the highest potential fungicides that successfully pass the pot experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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Review

Jump to: Research

14 pages, 26618 KiB  
Review
The Multifaceted Roles of Fungal Cutinases during Infection
by Gulab Chand Arya and Hagai Cohen
J. Fungi 2022, 8(2), 199; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8020199 - 18 Feb 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2442
Abstract
Cuticles cover the aerial epidermis cells of terrestrial plants and thus represent the first line of defence against invading pathogens, which must overcome this hydrophobic barrier to colonise the inner cells of the host plant. The cuticle is largely built from the cutin [...] Read more.
Cuticles cover the aerial epidermis cells of terrestrial plants and thus represent the first line of defence against invading pathogens, which must overcome this hydrophobic barrier to colonise the inner cells of the host plant. The cuticle is largely built from the cutin polymer, which consists of C16 and C18 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone that are further modified with terminal and mid-chain hydroxyl, epoxy, and carboxy groups, all cross-linked by ester bonds. To breach the cuticle barrier, pathogenic fungal species employ cutinases—extracellular secreted enzymes with the capacity to hydrolyse the ester linkages between cutin monomers. Herein, we explore the multifaceted roles that fungal cutinases play during the major four stages of infection: (i) spore landing and adhesion to the host plant cuticle; (ii) spore germination on the host plant cuticle; (iii) spore germ tube elongation and the formation of penetrating structures; and (iv) penetration of the host plant cuticle and inner tissue colonisation. Using previous evidence from the literature and a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic tree of cutinases, we discuss the notion whether the lifestyle of a given fungal species can predict the activity nature of its cutinases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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21 pages, 5429 KiB  
Review
A Review: Late Wilt of Maize—The Pathogen, the Disease, Current Status, and Future Perspective
by Ofir Degani
J. Fungi 2021, 7(11), 989; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7110989 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3753
Abstract
Late wilt (LWD) is a vascular wilt disease that outbursts late in maize development, usually during or after flowering. The disease causal agent, the soil and seed-borne fungi, Magnaporthiopsis maydis, causes significant economic losses in Egypt, Israel, Spain, Portugal, and India. Since [...] Read more.
Late wilt (LWD) is a vascular wilt disease that outbursts late in maize development, usually during or after flowering. The disease causal agent, the soil and seed-borne fungi, Magnaporthiopsis maydis, causes significant economic losses in Egypt, Israel, Spain, Portugal, and India. Since its discovery in the early 1960s in Egypt, the knowledge base of the disease was significantly expanded. This includes basic information on the pathogen and its mode of action, disease symptoms and damages, methods to study and monitor the pathogen, and above all, control strategies to restrain M. maydis and reduce its impact on commercial maize production. Three approaches stand out from the various control methods inspected. First, the traditional use of chemical pesticides was investigated extensively. This approach gained attention when, in 2018–2020, a feasible and economical treatment based on Azoxystrobin (alone or in combination with other fungicides) was proven to be effective even in severe cases of LWD. Second, the growing trend of replacing chemical treatments with eco-friendly biological and other green protocols has become increasingly important in recent years and has already made significant achievements. Last but not least, today’s leading strategy to cope with LWD is to rely on resistant maize genotypes. The past two decades’ introduction of molecular-based diagnostic methods to track and identify the pathogen marked significant progress in this global effort. Still, worldwide research efforts are progressing relatively slowly since the disease is considered exotic and unfamiliar in most parts of the world. The current review summarizes the accumulated knowledge on LWD, its causal agent, and the disease implications. An additional important aspect that will be addressed is a future perspective on risks and knowledge gaps. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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15 pages, 1571 KiB  
Review
Advances in the Role of Dark Septate Endophytes in the Plant Resistance to Abiotic and Biotic Stresses
by Mila Santos, Ignacio Cesanelli, Fernando Diánez, Brenda Sánchez-Montesinos and Alejandro Moreno-Gavíra
J. Fungi 2021, 7(11), 939; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7110939 - 04 Nov 2021
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4174
Abstract
Endophytic fungi have been studied in recent decades to understand how they interact with their hosts, the types of relationships they establish, and the potential effects of this interaction. Dark septate endophytes (DSE) are isolated from healthy plants and form melanised structures in [...] Read more.
Endophytic fungi have been studied in recent decades to understand how they interact with their hosts, the types of relationships they establish, and the potential effects of this interaction. Dark septate endophytes (DSE) are isolated from healthy plants and form melanised structures in the roots, including inter- and intracellular hyphae and microsclerotia, causing low host specificity and covering a wide geographic range. Many studies have revealed beneficial relationships between DSE and their hosts, such as enhanced plant growth, nutrient uptake, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stress. Furthermore, in recent decades, studies have revealed the ability of DSE to mitigate the negative effects of crop diseases, thereby highlighting DSE as potential biocontrol agents of plant diseases (BCAs). Given the importance of these fungi in nature, this article is a review of the role of DSE as BCAs. The findings of increasing numbers of studies on these fungi and their relationships with their plant hosts are also discussed to enable their use as a tool for the integrated management of crop diseases and pests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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21 pages, 3700 KiB  
Review
A Critical Review on Communication Mechanism within Plant-Endophytic Fungi Interactions to Cope with Biotic and Abiotic Stresses
by Hongyun Lu, Tianyu Wei, Hanghang Lou, Xiaoli Shu and Qihe Chen
J. Fungi 2021, 7(9), 719; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7090719 - 01 Sep 2021
Cited by 80 | Viewed by 7412
Abstract
Endophytic fungi infect plant tissues by evading the immune response, potentially stimulating stress-tolerant plant growth. The plant selectively allows microbial colonization to carve endophyte structures through phenotypic genes and metabolic signals. Correspondingly, fungi develop various adaptations through symbiotic signal transduction to thrive in [...] Read more.
Endophytic fungi infect plant tissues by evading the immune response, potentially stimulating stress-tolerant plant growth. The plant selectively allows microbial colonization to carve endophyte structures through phenotypic genes and metabolic signals. Correspondingly, fungi develop various adaptations through symbiotic signal transduction to thrive in mycorrhiza. Over the past decade, the regulatory mechanism of plant-endophyte interaction has been uncovered. Currently, great progress has been made on plant endosphere, especially in endophytic fungi. Here, we systematically summarize the current understanding of endophytic fungi colonization, molecular recognition signal pathways, and immune evasion mechanisms to clarify the transboundary communication that allows endophytic fungi colonization and homeostatic phytobiome. In this work, we focus on immune signaling and recognition mechanisms, summarizing current research progress in plant-endophyte communication that converge to improve our understanding of endophytic fungi. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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14 pages, 1506 KiB  
Review
Rethinking of the Roles of Endophyte Symbiosis and Mycotoxin in Oxytropis Plants
by Huirui Guan, Xin Liu, Luis A. J. Mur, Yanping Fu, Yahui Wei, Jing Wang and Wei He
J. Fungi 2021, 7(5), 400; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7050400 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2601
Abstract
Plants in the Oxytropis genus can live with the endophytic fungi Alternaria sect. Undifilum. Swainsonine, the mycotoxin produced by the endophyte render the host plant toxic and this has been detrimental to grazing livestock in both China and U.S.A. Despite previous efforts, [...] Read more.
Plants in the Oxytropis genus can live with the endophytic fungi Alternaria sect. Undifilum. Swainsonine, the mycotoxin produced by the endophyte render the host plant toxic and this has been detrimental to grazing livestock in both China and U.S.A. Despite previous efforts, many questions remain to be solved, such as the transmission mode and life cycle of host–endophyte symbiont, the biosynthesis pathway of swainsonine, and in particular the ecological role and evolution of such symbiosis. In this review, we compile the literature to synthesize ideas on the diversity of the symbiosis and propagation of the endophyte. We further compare the previous work from both Alternaria sect. Undifilum and other swainsonine producing fungi to orchestrate a more comprehensive biosynthesis pathway of swainsonine. We also connect swainsonine biosynthesis pathway with that of its precursor, lysine, and link this to a potential role in modulating plant stress response. Based on this we hypothesize that this host–endophyte co-evolution originated from the needs for host plant to adapt for stress. Validation of this hypothesis will depend on future research on endophytic symbiosis in Oxytropis and help in better understanding the roles of plant–endophyte symbiosis in non-Poaceae species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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26 pages, 2015 KiB  
Review
Bioprospecting of Rhizosphere-Resident Fungi: Their Role and Importance in Sustainable Agriculture
by Mahadevamurthy Murali, Banu Naziya, Mohammad Azam Ansari, Mohammad N. Alomary, Sami AlYahya, Ahmad Almatroudi, M. C. Thriveni, Hittanahallikoppal Gajendramurthy Gowtham, Sudarshana Brijesh Singh, Mohammed Aiyaz, Nataraj Kalegowda, Nanjaiah Lakshmidevi and Kestur Nagaraj Amruthesh
J. Fungi 2021, 7(4), 314; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7040314 - 18 Apr 2021
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5220
Abstract
Rhizosphere-resident fungi that are helpful to plants are generally termed as ‘plant growth promoting fungi’ (PGPF). These fungi are one of the chief sources of the biotic inducers known to give their host plants numerous advantages, and they play a vital role in [...] Read more.
Rhizosphere-resident fungi that are helpful to plants are generally termed as ‘plant growth promoting fungi’ (PGPF). These fungi are one of the chief sources of the biotic inducers known to give their host plants numerous advantages, and they play a vital role in sustainable agriculture. Today’s biggest challenge is to satisfy the rising demand for crop protection and crop yield without harming the natural ecosystem. Nowadays, PGPF has become an eco-friendly way to improve crop yield by enhancing seed germination, shoot and root growth, chlorophyll production, and fruit yield, etc., either directly or indirectly. The mode of action of these PGPF includes the solubilization and mineralization of the essential micro- and macronutrients needed by plants to regulate the balance for various plant processes. PGPF produce defense-related enzymes, defensive/volatile compounds, and phytohormones that control pathogenic microbes’ growth, thereby assisting the plants in facing various biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, this review presents a holistic view of PGPF as efficient natural biofertilizers to improve crop plants’ growth and resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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21 pages, 1399 KiB  
Review
Comprehensive Assessment of Ameliorative Effects of AMF in Alleviating Abiotic Stress in Tomato Plants
by Murugesan Chandrasekaran, Thangavelu Boopathi and Paramasivan Manivannan
J. Fungi 2021, 7(4), 303; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7040303 - 15 Apr 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5392
Abstract
Population growth and food necessity envisaged the dire need for supplementation to a larger community balance in food production. With the advent of the green revolution, agriculture witnessed the insurrection of horticultural fruit crops and field crops in enormous modes. Nevertheless, chemical fertilizer [...] Read more.
Population growth and food necessity envisaged the dire need for supplementation to a larger community balance in food production. With the advent of the green revolution, agriculture witnessed the insurrection of horticultural fruit crops and field crops in enormous modes. Nevertheless, chemical fertilizer usage foresees soil pollution and fertility loss. Utilization of biocontrol agents and plant growth promotion by microbial colonization enrooted significant restoration benefits. Constant reliability for healthy foods has been emancipated across the globe stressing high nutritive contents among indigenous field crops like tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). However, stress tolerance mechanisms and efficient abatement require deeper insights. The applicability of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) poses as an ultimate strategy to minimize the deleterious consequences of abiotic stress such as salt, drought, temperature and heavy metal stress sustainably. The rational modality employing the application of AMF is one of significant efforts to lessen cell damages under abiotic stress. The novelty of the compilation can be redressed to cohesive literature for combating stress. The literature review will provide agricultural scientists worldwide in providing a rational approach that can have possible implications in not only tomato but also other vegetable crops. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant and Fungal Interactions)
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