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Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Advanced Composites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2022) | Viewed by 30249

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Aase Reyes

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering and Energy Technology, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
Interests: structures, systems, and materials for energy absorption; crashworthiness; impact and blast; metals; formability; material constitutive behavior; structural foams; properties characterization; numerical and analytical methods

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue aims to summarize the recent advances within the large field of sandwich composites. Traditionally, the sandwich structure has been used as a structural element with high specific bending stiffness and strength, where the main intention of the core is to separate and stabilize the outer sheets to mitigate buckling caused by different loads. Today, sandwich structures can also be used as energy absorbing systems, where the core material will absorb energy during loading, and as a result, lower the forces and displacements transferred to the protected structure. There is a myriad of different core and skin materials that can be combined to create the sandwich component, often governed by the application.

It is my pleasure to invite you to submit original research studies, review papers, and experimental and/or numerical investigations related to theory, testing, modeling, simulation, design and applications of sandwich composites. This includes but is not limited to studies of core and skin materials, energy absorbing systems, protective structures, additive manufacturing of sandwich structures, optimization of sandwich composites, and fracture behavior of sandwich composites.

Prof. Dr. Aase Reyes
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

sandwich composites
skin and core materials
foams
cellular materials
energy absorbing systems
protective structures
additive manufacturing of sandwich structures
optimization of sandwich composites
fracture behavior of sandwich composites

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

23 pages, 8261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Load-Bearing Capacity of Lattice Cell Warren Truss Slot Resin-Stiffener-Reinforced Foam Sandwich Material

by Xueshan Chen, Wei Tian, Xiaoke Jin and Chenyan Zhu

Materials 2023, 16(7), 2729; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16072729 - 29 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1375

Abstract

This study optimized and proposed a Warren truss slot-hole structure with a double-sided, square shallow slot and vertical and horizontal corrugated symmetry, achieved with inclined holes based on the stability and a good bearing capacity of an inclined strut truss structure. The tetrahedral truss lattice cells were obverse and reverse-staggered in the central core of the structure. Compared with the double-sided, square shallow groove cylindrical straight hole, the resin consumption of the Warren truss slot holes was similar to that of a vacuum-assisted resin infusion; however, the external flat compression force of the Warren truss slot holes on the resin stiffener structure doubled, and its bending contact force increased by approximately 1.5 times. Furthermore, the resulting Warren truss-slotted resin structure exhibited a late failure time. Compared with the double-sided, square shallow groove cylindrical straight hole foam-core sandwich composite, the Warren truss slot resin-stiffener-reinforced sandwich composite exhibited an increase of 4.7 kN in the flat compression load, an improvement of ~40% in flat compressive strength performance, an increase of ~0.58 kN in the bending load, and an improvement of ~60% in the bending strength, demonstrating its better bearing strength performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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20 pages, 8634 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Modeling and Vibration Control of Sandwich Composite Plates

by Zhicheng Huang, Huanyou Peng, Xingguo Wang and Fulei Chu

Materials 2023, 16(3), 896; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16030896 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1690

Abstract

A finite element dynamic model of the sandwich composite plate was developed based on classical laminate theory and Hamilton’s principle. A 4-node, 7-degree-of-freedom three-layer plate cell is constructed to simulate the interaction between the substrate, the viscoelastic damping layer, and the piezoelectric material layer. Among them, the viscoelastic layer is referred to as the complex constant shear modulus model, and the equivalent Rayleigh damping is introduced to represent the damping of the substrate. The established dynamics model has too many degrees of freedom, and the obtained dynamics model has good controllability and observability after adopting the joint reduced-order method of dynamic condensation in physical space and equilibrium in state space. The optimal quadratic (LQR) controller is designed for the active control of the sandwich panel, and the parameters of the controller parameters, the thickness of the viscoelastic layer, and the optimal covering position of the sandwich panel are optimized through simulation analysis. The results show that the finite element model established in this paper is still valid under different boundary conditions and different covering methods, and the model can still accurately and reliably represent the dynamic characteristics of the original system after using the joint step-down method. Under different excitation signals and different boundary conditions, the LQR control can effectively suppress the vibration of the sandwich plate. The optimal cover position of the sandwich plate is near the solid support end and far from the free-degree end. The parameters of controller parameters and viscoelastic layer thickness are optimized from several angles, respectively, and a reasonable optimization scheme can be selected according to the actual requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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23 pages, 3986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Active Vibration Control of Composite Cantilever Beams

by Zhicheng Huang, Fan Huang, Xingguo Wang and Fulei Chu

Materials 2023, 16(1), 95; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16010095 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1628

Abstract

This paper deals with the active vibration control of composite cantilever beam. Based on the finite element method and Golla–Hughes–McTavish (GHM) model, the system dynamics equation is established. Models are simplified in physical and modal space because of unobservable and uncontrollable. Based on the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm, the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) feedback gain was optimized. The effect of system vibration damping under different controller parameters, piezoelectric-constrained layer position and excitation signal was studied. The study show that the optimal feedback gain of the controller can effectively balance the control effect and the control cost. The closer the piezoelectric layer and viscoelastic layer are to the fixed end, the better the system control effect and the smaller the control cost. The reduced-order model has a good control effect on different excitation signals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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17 pages, 6004 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Experimental and Numerical Study of Thermal Residual Stresses on Multimaterial Adherends in Single-Lap Joints

by Beatriz D. Simões, Paulo D. P. Nunes, Farin Ramezani, Ricardo J. C. Carbas, Eduardo A. S. Marques and Lucas F. M. da Silva

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8541; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15238541 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1497

Abstract

The presence of residual stresses in composite materials can significantly affect material performance, especially when integrated in bonded joints. These stresses, often generated during the cure process, can cause cracking and distortion of the material, and are caused by differences in the coefficients of thermal expansion or cure shrinkage. In the current research, multimaterial adherends combining carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) and aluminium in a single-lap joint (SLJ) configuration are analysed, allowing us to understand the effect of the thermal residual stresses, developed during the curing process, in the overall performance of the joints. A numerical model resorting to a finite element analysis (FEA) is developed to assess and predict the behaviour of the joints. The use of FML (fibre metal laminates) was found to significantly improve the strength of the joints, as well as the failure mode. The proposed geometry performed similarly to the comparable FML geometry, in addition to a decrease in the joint weight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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14 pages, 4776 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Experimental Investigation on the Use of a PEI Foam as Core Material for the In-Situ Production of Thermoplastic Sandwich Structures Using Laser-Based Thermoplastic Automated Fiber Placement

by Berend Denkena, Carsten Schmidt, Christopher Schmitt and Maximilian Kaczemirzk

Materials 2022, 15(20), 7141; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15207141 - 13 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1629

Abstract

Laser-based thermoplastic automated fiber placement (TAFP) is nowadays mainly used to produce pure carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) structures. This paper investigates the feasibility of a novel application: The deposition of thermoplastic prepreg tapes onto a thermoplastic foam for the production of thermoplastic sandwich structures. Therefore, simple deposition experiments of thermoplastic PEEK/CF prepreg tapes on a PEI closed-cell foam were carried out. 3D surface profile measurements and peel tests according to DIN EN 28510-1 standard were used to investigate the joining area and bonding quality. The results show that a cohesive bond is formed between the deposited tapes and the foam core, however the foam structure in the area of the deposited tapes deforms in dependence of the process parameters, and increasingly with higher deposition temperatures. Due to the deformations that occur during tape deposition, the thermomechanical foam behavior under the TAFP process conditions was investigated in more detail in a subsequent study for an extensive parameter space using a simple experimental setup. Results show that for suitable process parameters, namely a short contact time and a high temperature, the foam deformation can be minimized with the simultaneous formation of a thin melting layer required for cohesive bonding. The inner foam core structure remains unaffected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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16 pages, 8224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Point Bending Behavior of Aluminum Foam Sandwich with Different Interface Bonding Methods

by Peng Huang, Xi Sun, Xixi Su, Qiang Gao, Zhanhao Feng and Guoyin Zu

Materials 2022, 15(19), 6931; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15196931 - 06 Oct 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1557

Abstract

The interface bonding method has a great influence on the mechanical properties of aluminum foam sandwich (AFS). This study aims to investigate the effect of different interface bonding methods on the mechanical properties of AFS. In this paper, the metallurgical-bonding interface-formation mechanism of AFS prepared by powder metallurgy was investigated. The shear properties of metallurgical-bonded AFS were determined by the panel peeling test. The flexural properties and energy absorption of metallurgical-bonded and glued AFS were analyzed through the three-point bending test. The results show that the magnesium, silicon, and copper elements of the core layer diffuse to panels and form a metallurgical composite layer. The metallurgical-bonding strength between the panel and core layer is higher than that of the foam core layer. The peak load of metallurgically-bonded AFS is 24% more than that of glued AFS, and energy absorption is 12.2 times higher than that of glued AFS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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15 pages, 2950 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reprocessed Materials Used in Rotationally Moulded Sandwich Structures for Enhancing Environmental Sustainability: Low-Velocity Impact and Flexure-after-Impact Responses

by Abu Saifullah, Pappu Radhakrishnan, Lei Wang, Burhan Saeed, Forkan Sarker and Hom N. Dhakal

Materials 2022, 15(18), 6491; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15186491 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1428

Abstract

In the rotational moulding industry, non-used, scrap, and waste purge materials have tremendous potential to be reprocessed and applied in skin-foam-skin sandwich structures to replace and reduce the use of virgin polymers. This approach not only encourages the re-use of these waste materials but also significantly contributes to reduce environmental impacts associated with the use of virgin polymers in this sector. The demand of rotationally moulded sandwich structures is rapidly increasing in automotive, marine, and storage tanks, where investigating their impact and after-impact responses are crucial. Hence, this study investigated the low-velocity impact (LVI) and flexure-after-impact (FAI) responses of rotationally moulded sandwich structures manufactured using reprocessed materials. Results obtained from LVI induced damage at two different incident energy levels (15 J, 30 J), and the residual flexural strength of impacted structures evaluated by three-points bending tests were compared with non-reprocessed sandwich structures (virgin materials). The impact damage progression mechanism was characterized using the X-ray micro-computer-tomography technique. Reprocessed sandwiches demonstrated 91% and 66% post-impact residual strength at 15 J and 30 J respectively, while for non-reprocessed sandwiches, these values were calculated as 93% and 88%. Although reprocessed sandwich structures showed a lower performance over non-reprocessed sandwiches, they have a strong potential to be used in sandwich structures for various applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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19 pages, 10343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Indenter Nose Shape and Layer Configuration on the Quasi-Static Perforation Behaviour of Metal–Plastic Laminates

by Mohammad Uddin, Graham Stevens and Daniel Williams

Materials 2022, 15(17), 5879; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15175879 - 25 Aug 2022

Viewed by 1060

Abstract

This study investigated the perforation resistance behaviour of metal–plastic laminates (MPLs) when they are indented by different nose shapes. Aluminium (Al) and HDPE (high-density polyethylene) layers were bonded with a suitable adhesive in an alternative manner to prepare bilayer and trilayer MPL configurations. Quasi-static perforation experiments were performed with hemispherical, conical and blunt indenters. The effects of nose shape, layer configuration and adhesive on the force–deformation profile, perforation resistance capacity and failure mechanisms were evaluated. The results indicate that for a monolithic layer, the blunt indenter showed the highest perforation energy capacity. The conical and blunt indenters facing Al backed by HDPE gave higher perforation energy. The hemispherical indenter facing HDPE backed by Al was found to be more effective in perforation resistance. Trilayer Al–HDPE–Al showed higher perforation resistance than HDPE–Al–HDPE. Circumferential cracking, radial symmetric cracking and shear plugging were the main failure modes for Al under hemispherical, conical and blunt indenters, respectively. The adhesive contributed to an increase in the perforation energy and peak force to failure in laminates. The adhesive was shown to detach from the Al surface after Al fracturing through crack propagation, and this effect was more pronounced when the indenter faced HDPE at the front of the laminate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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29 pages, 31029 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Tests and Numerical Simulations on the Ballistic Impact Response of a Highly Inhomogeneous Aluminium Foam

by Kristoffer A. Brekken, Ole Vestrum, Sumita Dey, Aase Reyes and Tore Børvik

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4651; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15134651 - 01 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1481

Abstract

A sandwich structure is a composite material consisting of thin skins encapsulating a cellular core. Such structures have proven to be excellent energy absorbents and are frequently found in various types of protection. Even so, few studies exist in the open literature on the response of the core material itself under extreme loadings such as blast and impact. Since a blast load is usually accompanied by numerous fragments, it is important to understand and be able to predict the ballistic impact resistance of the often highly inhomogeneous cellular core materials in design. In this study, the ballistic impact response of an aluminium foam with a complex cell structure has been investigated both experimentally and numerically. First, an extensive material test program involving compression tests on cubic specimens loaded in the thickness direction of the foam was carried out to reveal the mechanical properties of the material. In addition, several of the specimens were scanned before testing using X-ray Micro Computed Tomography (XRMCT) to map the multi-scale topology and morphology of the material. These data were later analysed to extract density-variation plots in many different material orientations. Second, ballistic impact tests were conducted using a gas gun where rigid spheres were launched towards aluminium foam plates, and the ballistic limit velocity and curve of the foam material were established. Finally, numerical simulations of both the material tests and the ballistic impact tests were carried out using LS-DYNA and different modelling approaches based on the XRMCT data. It will be shown that, independent of the modelling strategy applied, good agreement between the experimental impact tests and the numerical predictions can be obtained. However, XRMCT data are important if the final goal is to numerically optimise and improve the behaviour of inhomogeneous foams with respect to energy absorption, thermal isolation, or similar properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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18 pages, 1968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Active Vibration Control of Piezoelectric Sandwich Plates

by Zhicheng Huang, Yuhang Mao, Anna Dai, Mengna Han, Xingguo Wang and Fulei Chu

Materials 2022, 15(11), 3907; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15113907 - 31 May 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1878

Abstract

This paper deals with the active vibration control of piezoelectric sandwich plate. The structure consists of a substrate plate layer sandwiched between two layers of piezoelectric sensor and actuator. Based on laminate theory and constitutive equation of piezoelectric material, the vibration active control dynamic equation of the sandwich structure is established by using hypothetical mode method and Hamilton principle. The Rayleigh-Ritz method is used to solve it. The form of hypothetical solution is used for approximate solution, which is simple and accurate. The method of this paper is verified by several examples. The parametric studies of the sandwich plate structures are carried out. The results show that applying different boundary conditions and piezoelectric patch positions to the structures have a great influence on the natural frequency. When the driving voltage increases, the deflection of the plate structures increase approximately linearly. The active vibration control studies are investigated as well. The results show that within a certain range, the larger the value of the speed feedback coefficient, the better the active control effect. The positions of the piezoelectric patches affect the effectiveness and cost of active control. When the piezoelectric plate is located at the fixed end, the effect and cost of active control are better than that at the midpoint and free end of the plate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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13 pages, 1190 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transverse Vibration of Viscoelastic Sandwich Structures: Finite Element Modeling and Experimental Study

by Zhicheng Huang, Jinbo Pan, Ziheng Yang, Xingguo Wang and Fulei Chu

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7751; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14247751 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1872

Abstract

In the present work, the nonlinear vibration behavior of elastic-viscoelastic-elastic sandwich (EVES) beams is studied. A finite element (FE) equation taking intoaccount the transverse compression deformation of the viscoelastic core for the EVES beams is derived. In order toaccurately characterize the frequency-dependent feature of the viscoelastic materials layer, athird-order seven-parameter Biot model isused. A 2-node 8-DOF element is established to discretize the EVES beams. The experimental testing onEVES beams validates the numerical predication of the FE model. Numerical and analytical investigations are carried on a series of EVES beams with different thicknesses. The results indicate that the presented FE model has better accuracy in predicting the natural frequency of the sandwich beams, and in predicting damping, the accuracy is related to the thickness of each layer. The results of this paper have important reference values for the design and optimization of the viscoelastic sandwich structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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19 pages, 6455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Lattice Topology and Material Optimization for Battery Protection in Electric Vehicles Subjected to Ground Impact Using Artificial Neural Networks and Genetic Algorithms

by Alvian Iqbal Hanif Nasrullah, Sigit Puji Santosa, Djarot Widagdo and Faizal Arifurrahman

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7618; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14247618 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2722

Abstract

A critical external interference that often appears to pose a safety issue in rechargeable energy storage systems (RESS) for electric vehicles (EV) is ground impact due to stone impingement. This study aims to propose the new concept of the sandwich for structural battery protection using a lattice structure configuration for electric vehicle applications. The protective geometry consists of two layers of a twisted-octet lattice structure. The appropriate lattice structure was selected through topology and material optimization using an artificial neural network (ANN), genetic algorithms (GA), and multi-objective optimization with technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) methods. The optimization variables are the lattice structure relative density,

\bar{ρ}

, angle, θ, and strength of the materials,

σ_{y}

. Numerical simulations were used to model the dynamic impact loading on the structures due to a conical stone mass of 0.77 kg traveling at 162 km/h. The two-layer lattice structure configuration appears to be suitable for the purposes of RESS protection. The optimum configuration for battery protection is a lattice structure with an angle of 66°, relative density of 0.8, and yield strength of 41 MPa. This optimum configuration can satisfy the safety threshold of battery-shortening deformation. Therefore, the proposed lattice structure configuration can potentially be implemented for electric vehicle applications to protect the battery from ground impact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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21 pages, 10070 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards an Understanding of the Effect of Adding a Foam Core on the Blast Performance of Glass Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Laminate Panels

by Sherlyn Gabriel, Christopher J. von Klemperer, Steeve Chung Kim Yuen and Genevieve S. Langdon

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7118; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14237118 - 23 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1890

Abstract

This paper presents insights into the blast response of sandwich panels with lightweight foam cores and asymmetric (different thicknesses) glass fibre epoxy face sheets. Viscously damped elastic vibrations were observed in the laminates (no core), while the transient response of the sandwich panels was more complex, especially after the peak displacement was observed. The post-peak residual oscillations in the sandwich panels were larger and did not decay as significantly with time when compared to the equivalent mass laminate panel test. Delamination was the predominant mode of failure on the thinner facesheet side of the sandwich panel, whereas cracking and matrix failure were more prominent on the thicker side (which was exposed to the blast). The type of constituent materials used and testing conditions, including the clamping method, influenced the resulting failure modes observed. A probable sequence of damage in the sandwich panels was proposed, based on the transient displacement measurements, a post-test failure analysis, and consideration of the stress wave propagation through the multilayered, multimaterial structure. This work demonstrates the need for detailed understanding of the transient behaviour of multilayered structures with significant elastic energy capacity and a wide range of possible damage mechanisms. The work should prove valuable to structural engineers and designers considering the deployment of foam-core sandwich panels or fibre reinforced polymer laminates in applications when air-blast loading may pose a credible threat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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Review

Jump to: Research

23 pages, 2319 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sandwich Structures for Energy Absorption Applications: A Review

by Faris Tarlochan

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4731; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14164731 - 22 Aug 2021

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 6649

Abstract

It is crucial that proper engineering structures are designed as energy absorbers for high dynamic loading situations, such as accidents, blasts, or impacts. The role of such structures is to absorb the high kinetic energy as strain energy through irreversible deformation of the structure. Many types of energy absorbers were designed for different dynamic high strain rate applications. One of these structures are sandwich structures. The aim of this review paper is to provide a general review on the type of sandwich structures that have been designed as energy absorbers and their performance in crashworthiness and blast related applications. The focus is on the type of core structures being used, namely foam and architected cores. It was found from the review that sandwich structures are viable candidates for such applications not only because of their light weight, but also due to the high-energy absorption capabilities. The work presented in this review paper shows that the data from the literature on this topic are vast and do not converge to any particular sandwich structure design. This presents the potential future research direction in designing sandwich structures, which have wider application at different scales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sandwich Composites: Design, Simulation and Applications)

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