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Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete
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Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2022) | Viewed by 51882

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Yeonung Jeong

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Construction Technology Research Center, Korea Conformity Laboratories (KCL), Seoul, Korea
Interests: sustainable concrete; alkali-activated materials; microstructural characterization; cementitious materials; recycling by-products

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With increasing attention on the reduction of CO2 emissions, the sustainability of construction materials has become one of the most growing issues in concrete science and engineering research fields. New sustainable construction materials, such as alkali-activated materials, calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement, and limestone calcined clay cement (LC3), have been suggested and high-performance and/or highly durable construction materials using special admixtures, such as nanomaterials, have been studied to reduce the environmental impact during the life cycle of construction materials.

This Special Issue aims to highlight and share recent findings in developing new sustainable cementitious materials, modeling their hydration kinetics, investigating their microstructure, improving the performance and durability of cementitious materials using functional supplementary ingredients, suggesting novel test methods for new construction materials, etc. This Special Issue calls for papers on the following, but not limited to, areas:

  • Sustainable concrete and alternative binders;
  • Hydration kinetics of sustainable cementitious materials;
  • Characterization of sustainable cementitious materials;
  • Re-utilization of industrial by-products for construction materials;
  • High strength and durable cementitious materials;
  • Property enhancement by functional additives;
  • Energy storage through construction materials;
  • Evaluation of environmental impact of new construction materials.

It is my great pleasure to invite you to submit a manuscript for publication in this Special Issue.

Dr. Yeonung Jeong
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • construction materials
  • green concrete
  • alternative binder
  • microstructure
  • sustainability
  • high strength
  • high durability

Published Papers (21 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 4520 KiB  
Article
Effect of Solution-to-Binder Ratio and Alkalinity on Setting and Early-Age Properties of Alkali-Activated Slag-Fly Ash Binders
by Ali Naqi, Brice Delsaute, Markus Königsberger and Stéphanie Staquet
Materials 2023, 16(1), 373; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16010373 - 30 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1476
Abstract
The growing use of blends of low- and high-calcium solid precursors in combination with different alkaline activators requires simple, efficient, and accurate experimental means to characterize their behavior, particularly during the liquid-to-solid transition (setting) at early material ages. This research investigates slag-fly ash [...] Read more.
The growing use of blends of low- and high-calcium solid precursors in combination with different alkaline activators requires simple, efficient, and accurate experimental means to characterize their behavior, particularly during the liquid-to-solid transition (setting) at early material ages. This research investigates slag-fly ash systems mixed at different solution-to-binder (s/b) ratios with sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide-based activator solutions of varying concentrations. Therefore, continuous non-destructive tests—namely ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) measurements and isothermal calorimetry tests—are combined with classical slump flow, Vicat, and uniaxial compressive strength tests. The experimental results highlight that high alkali and silica contents and a low s/b ratio benefit the early-age hydration, lead to a faster setting, and improve the early-age strength. The loss of workability, determined from the time when the slump flow becomes negligible, correlates well with ultrasonic P-wave velocity evolutions. This is, however, not the case for Vicat or calorimetry tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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27 pages, 9835 KiB  
Article
Design of Performance-Based Concrete Using Sand Reclaimed from Construction and Demolition Waste–Comparative Study of Czechia and India
by Tereza Pavlů, Namratha V. Khanapur, Kristina Fořtová, Diana Mariaková, Bhavna Tripathi, Tarush Chandra and Petr Hájek
Materials 2022, 15(22), 7873; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15227873 - 08 Nov 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1563
Abstract
The main goal and novelty of this study is to show the transferability of practices and experiences with the use of reclaimed sand worldwide in the case in two different regions, the Czech Republic and India, which is necessary for both regions due [...] Read more.
The main goal and novelty of this study is to show the transferability of practices and experiences with the use of reclaimed sand worldwide in the case in two different regions, the Czech Republic and India, which is necessary for both regions due to the sand availability (Czech Republic) and illegal sand mining including criminal offences (India). Due to the deteriorating environmental impacts associated with sand mining, finding substitution possibilities for natural sand is becoming more important worldwide. It is realized that the reuse of construction demolition waste concrete is inevitable in the pursuit of circular concrete and cleaner production, envisioned by the United Nations (UN) as the attainment of ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns (Sustainable Development Goal 12-SDG 12) with an inclusive approach of partnerships to achieve the goal (Sustainable Development Goal 17-SDG 17) for the validation of results. The basic material properties of reclaimed sand were examined, and its impact on the physical, mechanical, and durability properties of concrete with complete replacement of sand was evaluated. Generally, a slight decline in properties of concrete with fine recycled aggregate was found. No significant decrease was found from usage possibility in the point of view of its utilization in specific structures and conditions. The research shows the slight differences of results between the Czech and Indian investigations, which are not essential for the transferability of the results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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15 pages, 4914 KiB  
Article
Hydration and Mechanical Properties of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete with Nano-Silica and Silica Fume
by Byung-Jun Kim, Geon-Wook Lee and Young-Cheol Choi
Materials 2022, 15(19), 6599; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15196599 - 23 Sep 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1360
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of nano-silica (NS) and silica fume (SF) on the hydration reaction of high-volume fly ash cement (HVFC) composites. In order to solve the dispersibility problem caused by the agglomeration of NS powder, NS and NSF solutions were prepared. [...] Read more.
This study investigated the effects of nano-silica (NS) and silica fume (SF) on the hydration reaction of high-volume fly ash cement (HVFC) composites. In order to solve the dispersibility problem caused by the agglomeration of NS powder, NS and NSF solutions were prepared. NS content and SF content were used as main variables, and an HVFC paste was prepared in which 50% of the cement volume was replaced by fly ash (FA). The initial heat of hydration was measured using isothermal calorimetry to analyze the effects of NS and SF on the initial hydration properties of the HVFC. In addition, the compressive strength was analyzed by age. The refinement of the pore structure by the nanomaterial was analyzed using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). The results show that the addition of NS and SF shortened the setting time and induction period by accelerating the initial hydration reaction of HVFC composites and improved the compressive strength during the initial stage of hydration. In addition, the micropore structure was improved by the pozzolanic reaction of NS and SF, thereby increasing the compressive strength during the middle stage of hydration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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13 pages, 2469 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation of the Response of Concrete Structural Elements Containing a Self-Healing Agent
by Todor Zhelyazov
Materials 2022, 15(3), 1233; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15031233 - 07 Feb 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1958
Abstract
Self-healing of a crack is a relatively novel technique allowing for the partial recovery of the initial mechanical characteristics of a structural element after some period of exploitation. By a widely accepted convention, self-healing is either autogenous or autonomous. The former is a [...] Read more.
Self-healing of a crack is a relatively novel technique allowing for the partial recovery of the initial mechanical characteristics of a structural element after some period of exploitation. By a widely accepted convention, self-healing is either autogenous or autonomous. The former is a mechanism inherent for cementitious composites (in particular—concrete), while the latter is an engineered process. Both autogenous and engineered healing have recently been the object of numerous studies. Despite the large amount of research work being carried out, the potential of this technique has not yet been fully realized. The article focuses on the modeling and the finite element simulation of the recovery of the initial material properties resulting from the sealing of cracks. The employed numerical procedure uses a constitutive relation for concrete based on the continuum damage mechanics. It captures both the strain-softening and the inverse process—the crack healing. Finite element simulations of benchmark cases illustrate the effect of self-healing. The numerically obtained constitutive relations for specimens with and without a healing agent are compared. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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16 pages, 2656 KiB  
Article
Mechanical and Durability Properties of Cementless Concretes Made Using Three Types of CaO-Activated GGBFS Binders
by Woo Sung Yum, Juan Yu, Dongho Jeon, Haemin Song, Sungwon Sim, Do Hoon Kim and Jae Eun Oh
Materials 2022, 15(1), 271; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15010271 - 30 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2007
Abstract
This study examined the mechanical and durability properties of CaO-activated ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) concretes made with three different additives (CaCl2, Ca(HCOO)2, and Ca(NO3)2) and compared their properties to the concrete made with 100% Ordinary [...] Read more.
This study examined the mechanical and durability properties of CaO-activated ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) concretes made with three different additives (CaCl2, Ca(HCOO)2, and Ca(NO3)2) and compared their properties to the concrete made with 100% Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). All concrete mixtures satisfied targeted air content and slump ranges but exhibited significantly different mechanical and durability properties. The CaO-activated GGBFS concretes showed different strength levels, depending on the type of additive. The added CaCl2 was the most effective, but Ca(NO3)2 was the least effective at increasing mechanical strength in the CaO-activated GGBFS system. The OPC concrete showed the most excellent freezing–thawing resistance in the durability test, but only the CaO-activated GGBFS concrete with CaCl2 exhibited relatively similar resistance. In addition, the chemical resistance was significantly dependent on the type of acid solution and the type of binder. The OPC concrete had the best resistance in the HCl solution, while all CaO-activated GGBFS concretes had relatively low resistances. However, in the H2SO4 solution, all CaO-activated GGBFS concretes had better resistance than the OPC concrete. All concrete with sulfate ions had ettringite before immersion. However, when they were immersed in HCl solution, ettringite tended to decrease, and gypsum was generated. Meanwhile, the CaO-activated GGBFS concrete with CaCl2 did not change the type of reaction product, possibly due to the absence of ettringite and Ca(OH)2. When immersed in an H2SO4 solution, ettringite decreased, and gypsum increased in all concrete. In addition, the CaO-activated concrete with CaCl2 had a considerable amount of gypsum; it seemed that the dissolved C-S-H and calcite, due to the low pH, likely produced Ca2+ ions, and gypsum formed from the reaction between Ca2+ and H2SO4. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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8 pages, 1411 KiB  
Article
Modeling the Effect of Alternative Cementitious Binders in Ultra-High-Performance Concrete
by Solmoi Park, Namkon Lee, Gi-Hong An, Kyeong-Taek Koh and Gum-Sung Ryu
Materials 2021, 14(23), 7333; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14237333 - 30 Nov 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1486
Abstract
The use of alternative cementitious binders is necessary for producing sustainable concrete. Herein, we study the effect of using alternative cementitious binders in ultra-high-performance concrete (UPHC) by calculating the phase assemblages of UHPC in which Portland cement is replaced with calcium aluminate cement, [...] Read more.
The use of alternative cementitious binders is necessary for producing sustainable concrete. Herein, we study the effect of using alternative cementitious binders in ultra-high-performance concrete (UPHC) by calculating the phase assemblages of UHPC in which Portland cement is replaced with calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminate cement, metakaolin or blast furnace slag. The calculation result shows that replacing Portland cement with calcium aluminate cement or calcium sulfoaluminate cement reduces the volume of C-S-H but increases the overall solid volume due to the formation of other phases, such as strätlingite or ettringite. The modeling result predicts that using calcium aluminate cement or calcium sulfoaluminate cement may require more water than it would for plain UHPC, while a similar or lower amount of water is needed for chemical reactions when using blast furnace slag or metakaolin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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21 pages, 12466 KiB  
Article
Effect of the Addition of Agribusiness and Industrial Wastes as a Partial Substitution of Portland Cement for the Carbonation of Mortars
by Wilfrido Martinez-Molina, Hugo L. Chavez-Garcia, Tezozomoc Perez-Lopez, Elia M. Alonso-Guzman, Mauricio Arreola-Sanchez, Marco A. Navarrete-Seras, Jorge A. Borrego-Perez, Adria Sanchez-Calvillo, Jose A. Guzman-Torres and Jose T. Perez-Quiroz
Materials 2021, 14(23), 7276; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14237276 - 28 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1653
Abstract
The present research work shows the effect on the carbonation of Portland cement-based mortars (PC) with the addition of green materials, specifically residues from two groups: agricultural and industrial wastes, and minerals and fibres. These materials have the purpose of helping with the [...] Read more.
The present research work shows the effect on the carbonation of Portland cement-based mortars (PC) with the addition of green materials, specifically residues from two groups: agricultural and industrial wastes, and minerals and fibres. These materials have the purpose of helping with the waste disposal, recycling, and improving the durability of concrete structures. The specimens used for the research were elaborated with CPC 30R RS, according to the Mexican standard NMX-C-414, which is equivalent to the international ASTM C150. The aggregates were taken from the rivers Lerma and Huajumbaro, in the State of Michoacan, Mexico, and the water/cement relation was 1:1 in weight. The carbonation analyses were performed with cylinder specimens in an accelerated carbonation test chamber with conditions of 65 +/− 5% of humidity and 25 +/− 2 °C temperature. The results showed that depending on the PC substitutions, the carbonation front advance of the specimens can increase or decrease. It is highlighted that the charcoal ashes, blast-furnace slags, and natural perlite helped to reduce the carbonation advance compared to the control samples, consequently, they contributed to the durability of concrete structures. Conversely, the sugarcane bagasse ash, brick manufacturing ash, bottom ash, coal, expanded perlite, metakaolin, and opuntia ficus-indica dehydrated fibres additions increased the velocity of carbonation front, helping with the sequestration of greenhouse gases, such as CO2, and reducing environmental pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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18 pages, 8919 KiB  
Article
Empirical NOx Removal Analysis of Photocatalytic Construction Materials at Real-Scale
by Miyeon Kim, Hyunggeun Kim and Jinchul Park
Materials 2021, 14(19), 5717; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14195717 - 30 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1790
Abstract
The NOx removal performance of photocatalytic construction materials is demonstrated using two experiments under indoor and outdoor environments: (1) A photoreactor test was conducted to assess the NO removal performance of construction materials (e.g., coatings, paints and shotcrete) using a modified ISO 22197-1 [...] Read more.
The NOx removal performance of photocatalytic construction materials is demonstrated using two experiments under indoor and outdoor environments: (1) A photoreactor test was conducted to assess the NO removal performance of construction materials (e.g., coatings, paints and shotcrete) using a modified ISO 22197-1 method; (2) A water washing test was conducted using two specimens enlarged to the size of actual building materials and artificially exposed to NOx in a laboratory to analyze NOx removal performance. For (1), the UV irradiation of the outdoor environment was analyzed and the experiment was conducted in an indoor laboratory under UV irradiation identical to that of the outdoor condition. Photoreactor tests were conducted on construction materials applied to actual buildings located in Seoul, South Korea. In (2), the enlarged specimen was used for a field experiment by applying a modified method from the ISO 22197-1 standard. On sunny days, the NOx removal performance (3.12–4.76 μmol/150 cm2·5 h) was twice as much as that of the ISO 22197-1 standard specification (2.03 μmol/150 cm2·5 h) in the real-world. The washing water test results indicated that general aqueous paint achieved a NOx removal of 3.88 μmol, whereas photocatalytic paint was superior to 14.13 μmol. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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15 pages, 2093 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Dry Hydrated Limes on the Fresh and Hardened Properties of Architectural Injection Grout
by Andreja Padovnik and Violeta Bokan-Bosiljkov
Materials 2021, 14(19), 5585; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14195585 - 26 Sep 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1624
Abstract
Dry hydrated lime is an air binder often used in architectural injection grouts. This study compared the influences of three commercially available dry hydrated limes on the injection grouts’ workability and mechanical properties. The main differences between the limes were in their chemical [...] Read more.
Dry hydrated lime is an air binder often used in architectural injection grouts. This study compared the influences of three commercially available dry hydrated limes on the injection grouts’ workability and mechanical properties. The main differences between the limes were in their chemical and mineralogical composition and Blaine specific surface area. The grouts were composed of dry hydrated lime, finely ground limestone filler, water, and super plasticiser. Subsequent results obtained revealed that the Blaine specific surface area is not directly related to the fresh grout properties. Grain size distribution and shape of lime particles and their aggregates in the water suspension are key parameters influencing the following fresh grout properties: fluidity, injectability, the mixture’s stability, and water retention capacity. However, the lime injection grouts’ mechanical strengths were higher in relation to an increase in the content of portlandite and the Blaine specific surface area of the dry hydrate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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20 pages, 4984 KiB  
Article
Service Life Evaluation for RC Sewer Structure Repaired with Bacteria Mixed Coating: Through Probabilistic and Deterministic Method
by Hyun-Sub Yoon, Keun-Hyeok Yang, Kwang-Myong Lee and Seung-Jun Kwon
Materials 2021, 14(18), 5424; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14185424 - 19 Sep 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1522
Abstract
Since a concrete structure exposed to a sulfate environment is subject to surface ion ingress that yields cracking due to concrete swelling, its service life evaluation with an engineering modeling is very important. In this paper, cementitious repair materials containing bacteria, Rhodobacter capsulatus, [...] Read more.
Since a concrete structure exposed to a sulfate environment is subject to surface ion ingress that yields cracking due to concrete swelling, its service life evaluation with an engineering modeling is very important. In this paper, cementitious repair materials containing bacteria, Rhodobacter capsulatus, and porous spores for immobilization were developed, and the service life of RC (Reinforced Concrete) structures with a developed bacteria-coating was evaluated through deterministic and probabilistic methods. Design parameters such protective coating thickness, diffusion coefficient, surface roughness, and exterior sulfate ion concentration were considered, and the service life was evaluated with the changing mean and coefficient of variation (COV) of each factor. From service life evaluation, more conservative results were evaluated with the probabilistic method than the deterministic method, and as a result of the analysis, coating thickness and surface roughness were derived as key design parameters for ensuring service life. In an environment exposed to an exterior sulfate concentration of 200 ppm, using the deterministic method, the service life was 17.3 years without repair, 19.7 years with normal repair mortar, and 29.6 years with the application of bacteria-coating. Additionally, when the probabilistic method is applied in the same environment, the service life was changed to 9.2–16.0 years, 10.5–18.2 years, and 15.4–27.4 years, respectively, depending on the variation of design parameters. The developed bacteria-coating technique showed a 1.47–1.50 times higher service life than the application of normal repair mortar, and the effect was much improved when it had a low COV of around 0.1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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24 pages, 2013 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Incorporating Industrials Wastewater on Durability and Long-Term Strength of Concrete
by Ehsan Nasseralshariati, Danial Mohammadzadeh, Nader Karballaeezadeh, Amir Mosavi, Uwe Reuter and Murat Saatcioglu
Materials 2021, 14(15), 4088; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14154088 - 22 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2376
Abstract
Concrete, as one of the essential construction materials, is responsible for a vast amount of emissions. Using recycled materials and gray water can considerably contribute to the sustainability aspect of concrete production. Thus, finding a proper replacement for fresh water in the production [...] Read more.
Concrete, as one of the essential construction materials, is responsible for a vast amount of emissions. Using recycled materials and gray water can considerably contribute to the sustainability aspect of concrete production. Thus, finding a proper replacement for fresh water in the production of concrete is significant. The usage of industrial wastewater instead of water in concrete is considered in this paper. In this study, 450 concrete samples are produced with different amounts of wastewater. The mechanical parameters, such as slump, compressive strength, water absorption, tensile strength, electrical resistivity, rapid freezing, half-cell potential and appearance, are investigated, and a specific concentration and impurities of wastewater that cause a 10% compressive strength reduction were found. The results showed that the usage of industrial wastewater does not significantly change the main characteristics of concrete. Although increasing the concentration of wastewater can decrease the durability and strength features of concrete nonlinearly, the negative effects on durability tests are more conspicuous, as utilizing concentrated wastewaters disrupt the formation of appropriate air voids, pore connectivity and pore-size distribution in the concrete. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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20 pages, 32653 KiB  
Article
Effect of Cement Types and Superabsorbent Polymers on the Properties of Sustainable Ultra-High-Performance Paste
by Mei-Yu Xuan, Yi-Sheng Wang, Xiao-Yong Wang, Han-Seung Lee and Seung-Jun Kwon
Materials 2021, 14(6), 1497; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14061497 - 18 Mar 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1961
Abstract
This study focuses on the effects of superabsorbent polymers (SAP) and belite-rich Portland cement (BPC) on the compressive strength, autogenous shrinkage (AS), and micro- and macroscopic performance of sustainable, ultra-high-performance paste (SUHPP). Several experimental studies were conducted, including compressive strength, AS, isothermal calorimetry, [...] Read more.
This study focuses on the effects of superabsorbent polymers (SAP) and belite-rich Portland cement (BPC) on the compressive strength, autogenous shrinkage (AS), and micro- and macroscopic performance of sustainable, ultra-high-performance paste (SUHPP). Several experimental studies were conducted, including compressive strength, AS, isothermal calorimetry, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), attenuated total reflectance (ATR)–Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), ultra-sonic pulse velocity (UPV), and electrical resistivity. The following conclusions can be made based on the experimental results: (1) a small amount of SAP has a strength promotion effect during the first 3 days, while BPC can significantly improve the strength over the following 28 days. (2) SAP slows down the internal relative humidity reduction and effectively reduces the development of AS. BPC specimens show a lower AS than other specimens. The AS shows a linear relationship with the internal relative humidity. (3) Specimens with SAP possess higher cumulative hydration heat than control specimens. The slow hydration rate in the BPC effectively reduces the exothermic heat. (4) With the increase in SAP, the calcium hydroxide (CH) and combined water content increases, and SAP thus improves the effect on cement hydration. The contents of CH and combined water in BPC specimens are lower than those in the ordinary Portland cement (OPC) specimen. (5) All samples display rapid hydration of the cement in the first 3 days, with a high rate of UPV development. Strength is an exponential function of UPVs. (6) The electrical resistivity is reduced due to the increase in porosity caused by the release of water from SAP. From 3 to 28 days, BPC specimens show a greater increment in electrical resistivity than other specimens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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16 pages, 4343 KiB  
Article
Effect of Strengthening Methods on Two-Way Slab under Low-Velocity Impact Loading
by Sun-Jae Yoo, Tian-Feng Yuan, Se-Hee Hong and Young-Soo Yoon
Materials 2020, 13(24), 5603; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13245603 - 08 Dec 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1990
Abstract
In this study, the performance of reinforced concrete slabs strengthened using four methods was investigated under impact loads transferred from the top side to bottom side. The top and bottom sides of test slabs were strengthened by no-slump high-strength, high-ductility concrete (NSHSDC), fiber-reinforced-polymer [...] Read more.
In this study, the performance of reinforced concrete slabs strengthened using four methods was investigated under impact loads transferred from the top side to bottom side. The top and bottom sides of test slabs were strengthened by no-slump high-strength, high-ductility concrete (NSHSDC), fiber-reinforced-polymer (FRP) sheet, and sprayed FRP, respectively. The test results indicated that the test specimens strengthened with FRP series showed a 4% increase in reaction force and a decrease in deflection by more than 20% compared to the non-strengthened specimens. However, the specimen enhanced by the NSHSDC jacket at both the top and bottom sides exhibited the highest reaction force and energy dissipation as well as the above measurements because it contains two types of fibers in the NSHSDC. In addition, the weight loss rate was improved by approximately 0.12% for the NSHSDC specimen, which was the lowest among the specimens when measuring the weight before and after the impact load. Therefore, a linear relationship between the top and bottom strengthening of the NSHSDC and the impact resistance was confirmed, concluding that the NSHSDC is effective for impact resistance when the top and bottom sides are strengthened. The results of the analysis of the existing research show that the NSHSDC is considered to have high impact resistance, even though it has lower resistance than the steel fiber reinforced concrete and ultra-high-performance-concrete, it can be expected to further studies on strengthening of NSHSDC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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17 pages, 5665 KiB  
Article
Use of Coal Bottom Ash and CaO-CaCl2-Activated GGBFS Binder in the Manufacturing of Artificial Fine Aggregates through Cold-Bonded Pelletization
by Dongho Jeon, Woo Sung Yum, Haemin Song, Seyoon Yoon, Younghoon Bae and Jae Eun Oh
Materials 2020, 13(24), 5598; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13245598 - 08 Dec 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2004
Abstract
This study investigated the use of coal bottom ash (bottom ash) and CaO-CaCl2-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) binder in the manufacturing of artificial fine aggregates using cold-bonded pelletization. Mixture samples were prepared with varying added contents of bottom ash [...] Read more.
This study investigated the use of coal bottom ash (bottom ash) and CaO-CaCl2-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) binder in the manufacturing of artificial fine aggregates using cold-bonded pelletization. Mixture samples were prepared with varying added contents of bottom ash of varying added contents of bottom ash relative to the weight of the cementless binder (= GGBFS + quicklime (CaO) + calcium chloride (CaCl2)). In the system, the added bottom ash was not simply an inert filler but was dissolved at an early stage. As the ionic concentrations of Ca and Si increased due to dissolved bottom ash, calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) formed both earlier and at higher levels, which increased the strength of the earlier stages. However, the added bottom ash did not affect the total quantities of main reaction products, C-S-H and hydrocalumite, in later phases (e.g., 28 days), but simply accelerated the binder reaction until it had occurred for 14 days. After considering both the mechanical strength and the pelletizing formability of all the mixtures, the proportion with 40 relative weight of bottom ash was selected for the manufacturing of pilot samples of aggregates. The produced fine aggregates had a water absorption rate of 9.83% and demonstrated a much smaller amount of heavy metal leaching than the raw bottom ash. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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15 pages, 5400 KiB  
Article
Photocatalytic Performance Evaluation of Titanium Dioxide Nanotube-Reinforced Cement Paste
by Junxing Liu, Hyeonseok Jee, Myungkwan Lim, Joo Hyung Kim, Seung Jun Kwon, Kwang Myong Lee, Erfan Zal Nezhad and Sungchul Bae
Materials 2020, 13(23), 5423; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13235423 - 28 Nov 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2871
Abstract
Considering the increase in research regarding environmental pollution reduction, the utilization of cementitious material, a commonly used construction material, in photocatalysts has become a desirable research field for the widespread application of photocatalytic degradation technology. Nano-reinforcement technology for cementitious materials has been extensively [...] Read more.
Considering the increase in research regarding environmental pollution reduction, the utilization of cementitious material, a commonly used construction material, in photocatalysts has become a desirable research field for the widespread application of photocatalytic degradation technology. Nano-reinforcement technology for cementitious materials has been extensively researched and developed. In this work, as a new and promising reinforcing agent for cementitious materials, the photocatalytic performance of titanium dioxide nanotube (TNT) was investigated. The degradation of methylene blue was used to evaluate the photocatalytic performance of the TNT-reinforced cement paste. In addition, cement paste containing micro-TiO2 (m-TiO2) and nano-TiO2 (n-TiO2) particles were used for comparison. Moreover, the effect of these TiO2-based photocatalytic materials on the cement hydration products was monitored via X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TG). The results indicated that all the TiO2 based materials promoted the formation of hydration products. After 28 days of curing, the TNT-reinforced cement paste contained the maximum amount of hydration products (Ca(OH)2). Furthermore, the cement paste containing TNT exhibited better photocatalytic effects than that containing n-TiO2, but worse than that containing m-TiO2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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15 pages, 5563 KiB  
Article
Elucidation of the Hydration Reaction of UHPC Using the PONKCS Method
by Hyunuk Kang, Nankyoung Lee and Juhyuk Moon
Materials 2020, 13(20), 4661; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13204661 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2055
Abstract
This study explored the hydration reaction of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) as analysis methods. The partial- or no-known crystal structure (PONKCS) method was adopted to quantify the two main amorphous phases [...] Read more.
This study explored the hydration reaction of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) as analysis methods. The partial- or no-known crystal structure (PONKCS) method was adopted to quantify the two main amorphous phases of silica fume and C-S-H; such quantification is critical for understanding the hydration reaction of UHPC. The measured compressive strength was explained well by the degree of hydration found by the PONKCS method, particularly the amount of amorphous C-S-H. During heat treatment, the pozzolanic reaction was more intensified by efficiently consuming silica fume. After heat treatment, weak but continuous hydration was observed, in which the cement hydration reaction was dominant. Furthermore, the study discussed some limitations of using the PONKCS method for studying the complicated hydration assemblage of UHPC based on the results of TGA and NMR. Generally, the PONKCS method underestimated the content of silica fume in the early age of heat treatment. Furthermore, the structural evolution of C-S-H, confirmed by NMR, should be considered for more accurate quantification of C-S-H formed in UHPC. Nevertheless, PONKCS-based XRD could be useful for understanding and optimizing the material properties of UHPC undergoing heat treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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14 pages, 2733 KiB  
Article
CO2 Uptake and Physicochemical Properties of Carbonation-Cured Ternary Blend Portland Cement–Metakaolin–Limestone Pastes
by Rizwan Hameed, Joonho Seo, Solmoi Park, Issam T. Amr and H.K. Lee
Materials 2020, 13(20), 4656; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13204656 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2356
Abstract
The feasibility of carbonation curing of ternary blend Portland cement–metakaolin–limestone was investigated. Portland cement was substituted by the combination of metakaolin and limestone at levels of 15%, 30%, and 45% by the mass. The ternary blends were cured with four different combinations of [...] Read more.
The feasibility of carbonation curing of ternary blend Portland cement–metakaolin–limestone was investigated. Portland cement was substituted by the combination of metakaolin and limestone at levels of 15%, 30%, and 45% by the mass. The ternary blends were cured with four different combinations of ambient and carbonation curing. The mechanical property, CO2 uptake, and mineralogical variations of the ternary blend pastes were investigated by means of compressive strength test, thermogravimetric analysis, and X-ray diffractometry. In addition, volume of permeable voids and sorptivity of the ternary blends were also presented to provide a fundamental idea of the pore characteristics of the blends. The test results showed that the increasing amount of metakaolin and limestone enhanced the CO2 uptake, reaching 20.7% for the sample with a 45% cement replacement level at 27 d of carbonation. Meanwhile, the compressive strength of the samples was reduced up to 65% upon excessive incorporation of metakaolin and limestone. The samples with a replacement level of 15% exhibited a comparable strength and volume of permeable voids to those of the sample without substitution, proving that the ternary blend Portland cement–metakaolin–limestone can be a viable option toward the development of eco-friendly binders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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30 pages, 12941 KiB  
Article
Effect of Clinker Binder and Aggregates on Autogenous Healing in Post-Crack Flexural Behavior of Concrete Members
by Kwang-Myong Lee, Young-Cheol Choi, Byoungsun Park, Jinkyo F. Choo and Sung-Won Yoo
Materials 2020, 13(20), 4516; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13204516 - 12 Oct 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1914
Abstract
Crack healing has been studied extensively to protect reinforced concrete structures from the ingress of harmful ions. Research examining the regain in the mechanical properties of self-healing composites has focused mostly on the computation of the healing ratio based on the measurement of [...] Read more.
Crack healing has been studied extensively to protect reinforced concrete structures from the ingress of harmful ions. Research examining the regain in the mechanical properties of self-healing composites has focused mostly on the computation of the healing ratio based on the measurement of the tensile and compressive strengths but with poor regard for the flexural performance. However, the regain in the flexural performance should also be investigated for design purposes. The present study performs flexural testing on reinforced concrete members using crushed clinker binder and aggregates as well as crystalline admixtures as healing agents. Healing ratios of 100% for crack widths smaller than 200 μm and 85% to 90% for crack widths of 250 μm were observed according to the admixing of clinker binder and aggregates. Water flow test showed that the members replacing binder by 100% of clinker achieved the best crack healing performance. The crack healing property of concrete improved to some extent the rebar yield load, the members’ ultimate load and energy absorption capacity and ductility index. The crack distribution density from the observed crack patterns confirmed the crack healing effect provided by clinker powder. The fine grain size of clinker made it possible to replace fine aggregates and longer healing time increased the crack healing effect. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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13 pages, 3489 KiB  
Article
Strength, Drying Shrinkage, and Carbonation Characteristic of Amorphous Metallic Fiber-Reinforced Mortar with Artificial Lightweight Aggregate
by Se-Jin Choi, Ji-Hwan Kim, Sung-Ho Bae and Tae-Gue Oh
Materials 2020, 13(19), 4451; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13194451 - 07 Oct 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1897
Abstract
This paper investigates the strength, drying shrinkage, and carbonation characteristic of amorphous metallic fiber-reinforced mortar with natural and artificial lightweight aggregates. The use of artificial lightweight aggregates has the advantage of reducing the unit weight of the mortar or concrete, but there is [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the strength, drying shrinkage, and carbonation characteristic of amorphous metallic fiber-reinforced mortar with natural and artificial lightweight aggregates. The use of artificial lightweight aggregates has the advantage of reducing the unit weight of the mortar or concrete, but there is a concern that mechanical properties of concrete such as compressive strength and tensile strength may deteriorate due to the porous properties of lightweight aggregates. In order to improve the mechanical properties of lightweight aggregate mortar, we added 0, 10, 20, and 30 kg/m3 of amorphous metallic fibers to the samples with lightweight aggregate; the same amount of fiber was applied to the samples with natural aggregate for comparison. According to this investigation, the flow of mortar decreased as the amount of amorphous metallic fiber increased, regardless of the aggregate type. The compressive strength of lightweight aggregate mortar with 10 kg/m3 amorphous metallic fiber was similar to that of the LAF0 sample without amorphous metallic fiber after 14 days. In addition, the flexural strength of the samples increased as the amount of amorphous metallic fiber increased. The highest 28-d flexural strength was obtained as approximately 9.28 MPa in the LAF3 sample, which contained 30 kg/m3 amorphous metallic fiber. The drying shrinkage of the samples with amorphous metallic fiber was smaller than that of the sample without amorphous metallic fiber. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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14 pages, 6099 KiB  
Article
Pore Structure Characteristics of Foam Composite with Active Carbon
by Jungsoo Lee and Young Cheol Choi
Materials 2020, 13(18), 4038; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13184038 - 11 Sep 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3266
Abstract
Characterization of porous materials is essential for predicting and modeling their adsorption performance, strength, and durability. However, studies on the optimization of the pore structure to efficiently remove pollutants in the atmosphere by physical adsorption of construction materials have been insufficient. This study [...] Read more.
Characterization of porous materials is essential for predicting and modeling their adsorption performance, strength, and durability. However, studies on the optimization of the pore structure to efficiently remove pollutants in the atmosphere by physical adsorption of construction materials have been insufficient. This study investigated the pore structure characteristics of foam composites. Porous foam composites were fabricated using foam composite with high porosity, open pores, and palm shell active carbon with micropores. The content was substituted 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by volume of cement. From the measured nitrogen adsorption isotherm, the pore structure of the foam composite was analyzed using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) theory, Barrett–Joyner–Halenda (BJH) analysis, and Harkins-jura adsorption isotherms. From the analysis results, it was found that activated carbon increases the specific surface area and micropore volume of the foam composite. The specific surface area and micropore volume of the foam composite containing 15% activated carbon were 106.48 m2/g and 29.80 cm3/g, respectively, which were the highest values obtained in this study. A foam composite with a high micropore volume was found to be effective for the adsorption of air pollutants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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Review

Jump to: Research

18 pages, 688 KiB  
Review
A Review of Carbon Footprint Reduction in Construction Industry, from Design to Operation
by Banu Sizirici, Yohanna Fseha, Chung-Suk Cho, Ibrahim Yildiz and Young-Ji Byon
Materials 2021, 14(20), 6094; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14206094 - 15 Oct 2021
Cited by 72 | Viewed by 10696
Abstract
Construction is among the leading industries/activities contributing the largest carbon footprint. This review paper aims to promote awareness of the sources of carbon footprint in the construction industry, from design to operation and management during manufacturing, transportation, construction, operations, maintenance and management, and [...] Read more.
Construction is among the leading industries/activities contributing the largest carbon footprint. This review paper aims to promote awareness of the sources of carbon footprint in the construction industry, from design to operation and management during manufacturing, transportation, construction, operations, maintenance and management, and end-of-life deconstruction phases. In addition, it summarizes the latest studies on carbon footprint reduction strategies in different phases of construction by the use of alternative additives in building materials, improvements in design, recycling construction waste, promoting the utility of alternative water resources, and increasing efficiencies of water technologies and other building systems. It was reported that the application of alternative additives/materials or techniques/systems can reduce up to 90% of CO2 emissions at different stages in the construction and building operations. Therefore, this review can be beneficial at the stage of conceptualization, design, and construction to assist clients and stakeholders in selecting materials and systems; consequently, it promotes consciousness of the environmental impacts of fabrication, transportation, and operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Construction Materials: From Paste to Concrete)
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