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Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity
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Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity

A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Microbe Interactions".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2020) | Viewed by 47219

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Łukasz Stępień

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Guest Editor
Plant-Pathogen Interaction Team, Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479 Poznan, Poland
Interests: fungal genetics; Fusarium; molecular biology; mycotoxins; plant pathogens; secondary metabolism
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Special Issue “Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy, Pathogenicity” of Microorganisms aims to highlight the most recent reports on all aspects of Fusarium biology. Experts from the fields of plant pathology, genetics, chemistry, toxicology, and molecular biology are invited to contribute their newest findings in the form of full research articles, short communications or focused reviews to increase existing knowledge on this important group of fungi. Many Fusarium species are potent mycotoxin producers, which puts them among of the most devastating and dangerous plant pathogens worldwide. Mycotoxins are not only a threat to the health of mammals, but they often also show phytotoxic and antimicrobial activities. All studies on these aspects are welcome for this Special Issue. The mycotoxin profile is helpful in taxonomic studies, distinguishing sometimes closely related species, but molecular tools are even more powerful in Fusarium species identification and phylogeny, as great diversity of the Fusarium genus forces scientists to continuously revise the previously described taxons. Since evident climatic changes influence the contamination of plant material with Fusarium mycotoxins in new geographical areas and new toxins continuously emerge, reports revealing the chemotype or population changes in various environments are encouraged. Increased availability of sophisticated and advanced methods involving genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomics analyses allows for detailed deciphering of the mechanisms of Fusarium pathogenicity using multiple plant hosts and approaches, accelerating the advances in all fields of Fusarium research.

Dr. Łukasz Stępień
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Fusarium species characterization
  • mycotoxins in food and feed chains
  • chemotype and population changes
  • pathogenicity mechanisms

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 177 KiB  
Editorial
Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy, Pathogenicity
by Łukasz Stępień
Microorganisms 2020, 8(9), 1404; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8091404 - 12 Sep 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2098
Abstract
It has been over 200 years since Fusarium pathogens were described for the first time, and they are still in the spotlight of researchers worldwide, mostly due to their mycotoxigenic abilities and subsequent introduction of harmful metabolites into the food chain [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

18 pages, 3142 KiB  
Article
Three-Dimensional Study of F. graminearum Colonisation of Stored Wheat: Post-Harvest Growth Patterns, Dry Matter Losses and Mycotoxin Contamination
by Xavier Portell, Carol Verheecke-Vaessen, Rosa Torrelles-Ràfales, Angel Medina, Wilfred Otten, Naresh Magan and Esther García-Cela
Microorganisms 2020, 8(8), 1170; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8081170 - 01 Aug 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2718
Abstract
Fusarium causes significant post-harvest quality losses and mycotoxin contamination in stored wheat but the colonisation dynamics of the grain and how this may be affected by the initial inoculum position in the grain mass is poorly understood. This study examined the 3D growth [...] Read more.
Fusarium causes significant post-harvest quality losses and mycotoxin contamination in stored wheat but the colonisation dynamics of the grain and how this may be affected by the initial inoculum position in the grain mass is poorly understood. This study examined the 3D growth kinetics and mycotoxin production (deoxynivalenol and zearalenone) by F. graminearum during hyphal colonisation from different initial inoculum positions in wheat microcosms (top-centre, bottom-centre, and bottom-side) maintained at two water activities (aw; 0.95 and 0.97). Clear jars were used to visually follow the colonisation dynamics. Fungal respiration and associated dry matter loss (DML) and ergosterol were also quantified. Colonisation dynamics was shown to be affected by the inoculation position. At the end of the colonisation process, fungal respiration and DML were driven by the inoculation position, and the latter also by the prevailing aw. Fungal biomass (ergosterol) was mainly affected by the aw. The initial inoculum position did not affect the relative mycotoxin production. There was a positive correlation between respiration and ergosterol, and between mycotoxin production and colonisation indicators. We suggest that spatially explicit predictive models can be used to better understand the colonisation patterns and mycotoxin contamination of stored cereal commodities and to aid more effective post-harvest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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29 pages, 1822 KiB  
Article
Methodical Considerations and Resistance Evaluation against F. graminearum and F. culmorum Head Blight in Wheat. The Influence of Mixture of Isolates on Aggressiveness and Resistance Expression
by Akos Mesterhazy, Andrea Gyorgy, Monika Varga and Beata Toth
Microorganisms 2020, 8(7), 1036; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8071036 - 13 Jul 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1941
Abstract
In resistance tests to Fusarium head blight (FHB), the mixing of inocula before inoculation is normal, but no information about the background of mixing was given. Therefore, four experiments (2013–2015) were made with four independent isolates, their all-possible (11) mixtures and a control. [...] Read more.
In resistance tests to Fusarium head blight (FHB), the mixing of inocula before inoculation is normal, but no information about the background of mixing was given. Therefore, four experiments (2013–2015) were made with four independent isolates, their all-possible (11) mixtures and a control. Four cultivars with differing FHB resistance were used. Disease index (DI), Fusarium damaged kernels (FDK) and deoxynivalenol (DON) were evaluated. The isolates used were not stable in aggressiveness. Their mixtures did not also give a stable aggressiveness; it depended on the composition of mix. The three traits diverged in their responses. After the mixing, the aggressiveness was always less than that of the most pathogenic component was. However, in most cases it was significantly higher than the arithmetical mean of the participating isolates. A mixture was not better than a single isolate was. The prediction of the aggressiveness level is problematic even if the aggressiveness of the components was tested. Resistance expression is different in the mixing variants and in the three traits tested. Of them, DON is the most sensitive. More reliable resistance and toxin data can be received when instead of one more independent isolates are used. This is important when highly correct data are needed (genetic research or cultivar registration). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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9 pages, 1792 KiB  
Communication
First Demonstration of Clinical Fusarium Strains Causing Cross-Kingdom Infections from Humans to Plants
by Thuluz Meza-Menchaca, Rupesh Kumar Singh, Jesús Quiroz-Chávez, Luz María García-Pérez, Norma Rodríguez-Mora, Manuel Soto-Luna, Guadalupe Gastélum-Contreras, Virginia Vanzzini-Zago, Lav Sharma and Francisco Roberto Quiroz-Figueroa
Microorganisms 2020, 8(6), 947; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8060947 - 23 Jun 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3333
Abstract
Mycotoxins from the Fusarium genus are widely known to cause economic losses in crops, as well as high mortalities rates among immunocompromised humans. However, to date, no correlation has been established for the ability of Fusarium to cause cross-kingdom infection between plants and [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins from the Fusarium genus are widely known to cause economic losses in crops, as well as high mortalities rates among immunocompromised humans. However, to date, no correlation has been established for the ability of Fusarium to cause cross-kingdom infection between plants and humans. The present investigation aims to fill this gap in the literature by examining cross-kingdom infection caused by Furasium strains isolated from non-immunocompromised or non-immunosuppressed humans, which were subsequently reinfected in plants and on human tissue. The findings document for the first time cross-kingdom infective events in Fusarium species, thus enhancing our existing knowledge of how mycopathogens continue to thrive in different hosts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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18 pages, 1567 KiB  
Article
Methodical Considerations and Resistance Evaluation against Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum Head Blight in Wheat. Part 3. Susceptibility Window and Resistance Expression
by Andrea György, Beata Tóth, Monika Varga and Akos Mesterhazy
Microorganisms 2020, 8(5), 627; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8050627 - 25 Apr 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2124
Abstract
Flowering is the most favorable host stage for Fusarium infection in wheat, which is called the susceptibility window (SW). It is not known how long it takes, how it changes in different resistance classes, nor how stable is the plant reaction in the [...] Read more.
Flowering is the most favorable host stage for Fusarium infection in wheat, which is called the susceptibility window (SW). It is not known how long it takes, how it changes in different resistance classes, nor how stable is the plant reaction in the SW. We have no information, how the traits disease index (DI), Fusarium-damaged kernel rate (FDK), and deoxynivalenol (DON) respond within the 16 days period. Seven winter wheat genotypes differing in resistance were tested (2013–2014). Four Fusarium isolates were used for inoculation at mid-anthesis, and 4, 8, 11, 13, and 16 days thereafter. The DI was not suitable to determine the length of the SW. In the Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK), a sharp 50% decrease was found after the 8th day. The largest reduction (above 60%) was recorded for DON at each resistance level between the 8th and 11th day. This trait showed the SW most precisely. The SW is reasonably stable in the first 8–9 days. This fits for all resistance classes. The use of four isolates significantly improved the reliability and credit of the testing. The stable eight-day long SW helps to reduce the number of inoculations. The most important trait to determine the SW is the DON reaction and not the visual symptoms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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15 pages, 3470 KiB  
Article
Pro-Inflammatory Effects of NX-3 Toxin Are Comparable to Deoxynivalenol and not Modulated by the Co-Occurring Pro-Oxidant Aurofusarin
by Lydia Woelflingseder, Nadia Gruber, Gerhard Adam and Doris Marko
Microorganisms 2020, 8(4), 603; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8040603 - 21 Apr 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2924
Abstract
The type A trichothecene NX-3, produced by certain Fusarium graminearum strains, is similar to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON), with the exception that it lacks the carbonyl moiety at the C-8 position. NX-3 inhibits protein biosynthesis and induces cytotoxicity to a similar extent as [...] Read more.
The type A trichothecene NX-3, produced by certain Fusarium graminearum strains, is similar to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON), with the exception that it lacks the carbonyl moiety at the C-8 position. NX-3 inhibits protein biosynthesis and induces cytotoxicity to a similar extent as DON, but so far, immunomodulatory effects have not been assessed. In the present study, we investigated the impact of NX-3 on the activity of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway in direct comparison to DON. Under pro-inflammatory conditions (IL-1β treatment), the impact on cytokine mRNA levels of NF-κB downstream genes was studied in human colon cell lines, comparing noncancer (HCEC-1CT) and cancer cells (HT-29). In addition, potential combinatory effects with the co-occurring Fusarium secondary metabolite aurofusarin (AURO), a dimeric naphthoquinone known to induce oxidative stress, were investigated. NX-3 and DON (1 μM, 20 h) significantly activated a NF-κB regulated reporter gene to a similar extent. Both trichothecenes also enhanced transcript levels of the known NF-κB-dependent pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β. Comparing the colon cancer HT-29 and noncancer HCEC-1CT cells, significant differences in cytokine signaling were identified. In contrast, AURO did not affect NF-κB pathway activity and respective cytokine expression levels at the tested concentration. Despite its pro-oxidant potency, the combination with AURO did not significantly affect the immunomodulatory effects of the tested trichothecenes. Taken together, the present study reveals comparable potency of DON and NX-3 with respect to immunomodulatory and pro-inflammatory potential. Consequently, not only DON but also NX-3 should be considered as factors contributing to intestinal inflammatory processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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15 pages, 1636 KiB  
Article
Multiple Fungal Metabolites Including Mycotoxins in Naturally Infected and Fusarium-Inoculated Wheat Samples
by Valentina Spanic, Zorana Katanic, Michael Sulyok, Rudolf Krska, Katalin Puskas, Gyula Vida, Georg Drezner and Bojan Šarkanj
Microorganisms 2020, 8(4), 578; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8040578 - 17 Apr 2020
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 3679
Abstract
In this study, the occurrence of multiple fungal metabolites including mycotoxins was determined in four different winter wheat varieties in a field experiment in Croatia. One group was naturally infected, while the second group was inoculated with a Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum [...] Read more.
In this study, the occurrence of multiple fungal metabolites including mycotoxins was determined in four different winter wheat varieties in a field experiment in Croatia. One group was naturally infected, while the second group was inoculated with a Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum mixture to simulate a worst-case infection scenario. Data on the multiple fungal metabolites including mycotoxins were acquired with liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) multi-(myco)toxin method. In total, 36 different fungal metabolites were quantified in this study: the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), DON-3-glucoside (D3G), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), culmorin (CULM), 15-hydroxyculmorin, 5-hydroxyculmorin, aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, enniatin (Enn) A, Enn A1, Enn B, Enn B1, Enn B2, Enn B3, fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, chrysogin, zearalenone (ZEN), moniliformin (MON), nivalenol (NIV), siccanol, equisetin, beauvericin (BEA), and antibiotic Y; the Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol, alternariolmethylether, altersetin, infectopyron, tentoxin, tenuazonic acid; the Aspergillus mycotoxin kojic acid; unspecific metabolites butenolid, brevianamid F, cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr), cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val), and tryptophol. The most abundant mycotoxins in the inoculated and naturally contaminated samples, respectively, were found to occur at the following average concentrations: DON (19,122/1504 µg/kg), CULM (6109/1010 µg/kg), 15-hydroxyculmorin (56,022/1301 µg/kg), 5-hydroxyculmorin (21,219/863 µg/kg), aurofusarin (43,496/1266 µg/kg). Compared to naturally-infected samples, Fusarium inoculations at the flowering stage increased the concentrations of all Fusarium mycotoxins, except enniatins and siccanol in Ficko, the Aspergillus metabolite kojic acid, the Alternaria mycotoxin altersetin, and unspecific metabolites brevianamid F, butenolid, cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr), and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val). In contrast to these findings, because of possible antagonistic actions, Fusarium inoculation decreased the concentrations of the Alternaria toxins alternariol, alternariolmethylether, infectopyron, tentoxin, tenuazonic acid, as well as the concentration of the nonspecific metabolite tryptophol. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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12 pages, 6524 KiB  
Article
Diminished Pathogen and Enhanced Endophyte Colonization upon CoInoculation of Endophytic and Pathogenic Fusarium Strains
by Maria E. Constantin, Babette V. Vlieger, Frank L. W. Takken and Martijn Rep
Microorganisms 2020, 8(4), 544; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8040544 - 09 Apr 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4653
Abstract
Root colonization by Fusarium oxysporum (Fo) endophytes reduces wilt disease symptoms caused by pathogenic Fo strains. The endophytic strain Fo47, isolated from wilt suppressive soils, reduces Fusarium wilt in various crop species such as tomato, flax, and asparagus. How endophyte-mediated resistance (EMR) against [...] Read more.
Root colonization by Fusarium oxysporum (Fo) endophytes reduces wilt disease symptoms caused by pathogenic Fo strains. The endophytic strain Fo47, isolated from wilt suppressive soils, reduces Fusarium wilt in various crop species such as tomato, flax, and asparagus. How endophyte-mediated resistance (EMR) against Fusarium wilt is achieved is unclear. Here, nonpathogenic colonization by Fo47 and pathogenic colonization by Fo f.sp. lycopersici (Fol) strains were assessed in tomato roots and stems when inoculated separately or coinoculated. It is shown that Fo47 reduces Fol colonization in stems of both noncultivated and cultivated tomato species. Conversely, Fo47 colonization of coinoculated tomato stems was increased compared to single inoculated plants. Quantitative PCR of fungal colonization of roots (co)inoculated with Fo47 and/or Fol showed that pathogen colonization was drastically reduced when coinoculated with Fo47, compared with single inoculated roots. Endophytic colonization of tomato roots remained unchanged upon coinoculation with Fol. In conclusion, EMR against Fusarium wilt is correlated with a reduction of root and stem colonization by the pathogen. In addition, the endophyte may take advantage of the pathogen-induced suppression of plant defences as it colonizes tomato stems more extensively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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17 pages, 6910 KiB  
Article
The Photoreceptor Components FaWC1 and FaWC2 of Fusarium asiaticum Cooperatively Regulate Light Responses but Play Independent Roles in Virulence Expression
by Ying Tang, Pinkuan Zhu, Zhengyu Lu, Yao Qu, Li Huang, Ni Zheng, Yiwen Wang, Haozhen Nie, Yina Jiang and Ling Xu
Microorganisms 2020, 8(3), 365; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8030365 - 05 Mar 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3087
Abstract
Fusarium asiaticum belongs to one of the phylogenetical subgroups of the F. graminearum species complex and is epidemically predominant in the East Asia area. The life cycle of F. asiaticum is significantly regulated by light. In this study, the fungal blue light receptor [...] Read more.
Fusarium asiaticum belongs to one of the phylogenetical subgroups of the F. graminearum species complex and is epidemically predominant in the East Asia area. The life cycle of F. asiaticum is significantly regulated by light. In this study, the fungal blue light receptor white collar complex (WCC), including FaWC1 and FaWC2, were characterized in F. asiaticum. The knockout mutants ΔFawc1 and ΔFawc2 were generated by replacing the target genes via homologous recombination events. The two mutants showed similar defects in light-induced carotenoid biosynthesis, UV-C resistance, sexual fruiting body development, and the expression of the light-responsive marker genes, while in contrast, all these light responses were characteristics in wild-type (WT) and their complementation strains, indicating that FaWC1 and FaWC2 are involved in the light sensing of F. asiaticum. Unexpectedly, however, the functions of Fawc1 and Fawc2 diverged in regulating virulence, as the ΔFawc1 was avirulent to the tested host plant materials, but ΔFawc2 was equivalent to WT in virulence. Moreover, functional analysis of FaWC1 by partial disruption revealed that its light–oxygen–voltage (LOV) domain was required for light sensing but dispensable for virulence, and its Zinc-finger domain was required for virulence expression but not for light signal transduction. Collectively, these results suggest that the conserved fungal blue light receptor WCC not only endows F. asiaticum with light-sensing ability to achieve adaptation to environment, but it also regulates virulence expression by the individual component FaWC1 in a light-independent manner, and the latter function opens a way for investigating the pathogenicity mechanisms of this important crop disease agent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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17 pages, 1284 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Fumonisin Biosynthesis and Genetic Structure of Fusarium verticillioides Strains from Five Mediterranean Countries
by Giovanni Beccari, Łukasz Stępień, Andrea Onofri, Veronica M. T. Lattanzio, Biancamaria Ciasca, Sally I. Abd-El Fatah, Francesco Valente, Monika Urbaniak and Lorenzo Covarelli
Microorganisms 2020, 8(2), 241; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8020241 - 11 Feb 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3333
Abstract
Investigating the in vitro fumonisin biosynthesis and the genetic structure of Fusarium verticillioides populations can provide important insights into the relationships between strains originating from various world regions. In this study, 90 F. verticillioides strains isolated from maize in five Mediterranean countries (Italy, [...] Read more.
Investigating the in vitro fumonisin biosynthesis and the genetic structure of Fusarium verticillioides populations can provide important insights into the relationships between strains originating from various world regions. In this study, 90 F. verticillioides strains isolated from maize in five Mediterranean countries (Italy, Spain, Tunisia, Egypt and Iran) were analyzed to investigate their ability to in vitro biosynthesize fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2 and fumonisin B3 and to characterize their genetic profile. In general, 80% of the analyzed strains were able to biosynthesize fumonisins (range 0.03–69.84 μg/g). Populations from Italy, Spain, Tunisia and Iran showed a similar percentage of fumonisin producing strains (>90%); conversely, the Egyptian population showed a lower level of producing strains (46%). Significant differences in fumonisin biosynthesis were detected among strains isolated in the same country and among strains isolated from different countries. A portion of the divergent FUM1 gene and of intergenic regions FUM6-FUM7 and FUM7-FUM8 were sequenced to evaluate strain diversity among populations. A high level of genetic uniformity inside the populations analyzed was detected. Apparently, neither geographical origin nor fumonisin production ability were correlated to the genetic diversity of the strain set. However, four strains from Egypt differed from the remaining strains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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19 pages, 3061 KiB  
Article
DNA Methylation Profile of β-1,3-Glucanase and Chitinase Genes in Flax Shows Specificity Towards Fusarium Oxysporum Strains Differing in Pathogenicity
by Wioleta Wojtasik, Aleksandra Boba, Marta Preisner, Kamil Kostyn, Jan Szopa and Anna Kulma
Microorganisms 2019, 7(12), 589; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms7120589 - 20 Nov 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2471
Abstract
Most losses in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) crops are caused by fungal infections. The new epigenetic approach to improve plant resistance requires broadening the knowledge about the influence of pathogenic and non-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum strains on changes in the profile of DNA [...] Read more.
Most losses in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) crops are caused by fungal infections. The new epigenetic approach to improve plant resistance requires broadening the knowledge about the influence of pathogenic and non-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum strains on changes in the profile of DNA methylation. Two contrasting effects on the levels of methylation in flax have been detected for both types of Fusarium strain infection: Genome-wide hypermethylation and hypomethylation of resistance-related genes (β-1,3-glucanase and chitinase). Despite the differences in methylation profile, the expression of these genes increased. Plants pretreated with the non-pathogenic strain memorize the hypomethylation pattern and then react more efficiently upon pathogen infection. The peak of demethylation correlates with the alteration in gene expression induced by the non-pathogenic strain. In the case of pathogen infection, the expression peak lags behind the gene demethylation. Dynamic changes in tetramer methylation induced by both pathogenic and non-pathogenic Fusarium strains are dependent on the ratio between the level of methyltransferase and demethylase gene expression. Infection with both Fusarium strains suppressed methyltransferase expression and increased the demethylase (demeter) transcript level. The obtained results provide important new information about changes in methylation profile and thus expression regulation of pathogenesis-related genes in the flax plant response to stressors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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21 pages, 1926 KiB  
Article
Mycotoxins in Flanders’ Fields: Occurrence and Correlations with Fusarium Species in Whole-Plant Harvested Maize
by Jonas Vandicke, Katrien De Visschere, Siska Croubels, Sarah De Saeger, Kris Audenaert and Geert Haesaert
Microorganisms 2019, 7(11), 571; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms7110571 - 18 Nov 2019
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 3652
Abstract
Mycotoxins are well-known contaminants of several food- and feedstuffs, including silage maize for dairy cattle. Climate change and year-to-year variations in climatic conditions may cause a shift in the fungal populations infecting maize, and therefore alter the mycotoxin load. In this research, 257 [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are well-known contaminants of several food- and feedstuffs, including silage maize for dairy cattle. Climate change and year-to-year variations in climatic conditions may cause a shift in the fungal populations infecting maize, and therefore alter the mycotoxin load. In this research, 257 maize samples were taken from fields across Flanders, Belgium, over the course of three years (2016–2018) and analyzed for 22 different mycotoxins using a multi-mycotoxin liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. DNA of Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum and F. verticillioides was quantified using the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Multi-mycotoxin contamination occurred frequently, with 47% of samples containing five or more mycotoxins. Nivalenol (NIV) was the most prevalent mycotoxin, being present in 99% of the samples, followed by deoxynivalenol (DON) in 86% and zearalenone (ZEN) in 50% of the samples. Fumonisins (FUMs) were found in only 2% of the samples in the wet, cold year of 2016, but in 61% in the extremely hot and dry year of 2018. Positive correlations were found between DON and NIV and between F. graminearum and F. culmorum, among others. FUM concentrations were not correlated with any other mycotoxin, nor with any Fusarium sp., except F. verticillioides. These results show that changing weather conditions can influence fungal populations and the corresponding mycotoxin contamination of maize significantly, and that multi-mycotoxin contamination increases the risk of mycotoxicosis in dairy cattle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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22 pages, 1610 KiB  
Article
Performance of Winter Wheat Cultivars Grown Organically and Conventionally with Focus on Fusarium Head Blight and Fusarium Trichothecene Toxins
by Tomasz Góral, Aleksander Łukanowski, Elżbieta Małuszyńska, Kinga Stuper-Szablewska, Maciej Buśko and Juliusz Perkowski
Microorganisms 2019, 7(10), 439; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms7100439 - 11 Oct 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2535
Abstract
Growing acreage and changing consumer preferences cause increasing interest in the cereal products originating from organic farming. Lack of results of objective test, however, does not allow drawing conclusions about the effects of cultivation in the organic system and comparison to currently preferred [...] Read more.
Growing acreage and changing consumer preferences cause increasing interest in the cereal products originating from organic farming. Lack of results of objective test, however, does not allow drawing conclusions about the effects of cultivation in the organic system and comparison to currently preferred conventional system. Field experiment was conducted in organic and conventional fields. Thirty modern cultivars of winter wheat were sown. They were characterized for disease infection including Fusarium head blight, seed sowing value, the amount of DNA of the six species of Fusarium fungi as well as concentration of ergosterol and trichothecenes in grain. The intensity Fusarium head blight was at a similar level in both systems. However, Fusarium colonization of kernels expressed as ergosterol level or DNA concentration was higher for the organic system. It did not reflect in an increased accumulation of trichothecenes in grain, which was similar in both systems, but sowing value of organically produced seeds was lower. Significant differences between analyzed cropping systems and experimental variants were found. The selection of the individual cultivars for organic growing in terms of resistance to diseases and contamination of grain with Fusarium toxins was possible. Effects of organic growing differ significantly from the conventional and grain obtained such way can be recommended to consumers. There are indications for use of particular cultivars bred for conventional agriculture in the case of organic farming, and the growing organic decreases plant stress resulting from intense fertilization and chemical plant protection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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Review

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29 pages, 1075 KiB  
Review
Pathogenicity and Virulence Factors of Fusarium graminearum Including Factors Discovered Using Next Generation Sequencing Technologies and Proteomics
by Molemi E. Rauwane, Udoka V. Ogugua, Chimdi M. Kalu, Lesiba K. Ledwaba, Adugna A. Woldesemayat and Khayalethu Ntushelo
Microorganisms 2020, 8(2), 305; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8020305 - 22 Feb 2020
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7414
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum is a devasting mycotoxin-producing pathogen of grain crops. F. graminearum has been extensively studied to understand its pathogenicity and virulence factors. These studies gained momentum with the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies and proteomics. NGS and proteomics have enabled the [...] Read more.
Fusarium graminearum is a devasting mycotoxin-producing pathogen of grain crops. F. graminearum has been extensively studied to understand its pathogenicity and virulence factors. These studies gained momentum with the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies and proteomics. NGS and proteomics have enabled the discovery of a multitude of pathogenicity and virulence factors of F. graminearum. This current review aimed to trace progress made in discovering F. graminearum pathogenicity and virulence factors in general, as well as pathogenicity and virulence factors discovered using NGS, and to some extent, using proteomics. We present more than 100 discovered pathogenicity or virulence factors and conclude that although a multitude of pathogenicity and virulence factors have already been discovered, more work needs to be done to take advantage of NGS and its companion applications of proteomics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusarium: Mycotoxins, Taxonomy and Pathogenicity)
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