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Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation
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Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation

A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2019) | Viewed by 56176

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Philip C Stevenson

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Kent ME4 4TB, UK
2. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew TW9 3AB, UK
Interests: optimising pesticidal plants; chemical ecology; pollinator biology and health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Steven R Belmain

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Kent, ME4 4TB, UK
Interests: optimization pesticidal plants; rat ecology
Prof. Dr. Murray B Isman

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Land and Food Systems, 248-2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
Interests: entomology and toxicology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Global perceptions about environmental damage and changes to pesticide regulations in some regions as a consequence of their environmental persistence, broad spectrum activities or non-target effects, especially in Europe, has limited the number of synthetic chemicals products permitted for use in pest control. The increasing pressure on synthetic products has reinvigorated efforts to seek alternative pest management options, including new opportunities for plant-based solutions that are environmentally benign and tailored to different farmers’ needs.

This Special Issue will capture the latest developments in research on pesticidal plants and botanical pesticides from fundamental aspects, including identification of plant chemicals and evaluation of their bioactivities against pests or pathogens, mechanisms of activity, validation of use in small-scale systems and commercial-scale pest management, including in horticulture and disease vector control. We expect contributions to be undertaken using robust approaches that use chemical analysis or other referencing data to substantiate the source and origin of plant species tested.

Prof. Dr. Philip C Stevenson
Prof. Dr. Steven R Belmain
Prof. Dr. Murray B Isman
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Plants is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • plant chemical analysis
  • field evaluation of pesticidal plants
  • crop productivity
  • botanical pesticides
  • pest management
  • commercialization of botanicals

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 459 KiB  
Article
Potential Role of Lolium multiflorum Lam. in the Management of Rice Weeds
by Sara Vitalini, Francesca Orlando, Valentina Vaglia, Stefano Bocchi and Marcello Iriti
Plants 2020, 9(3), 324; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants9030324 - 04 Mar 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2563
Abstract
The phytotoxic relationships between crops and weeds can cover a role in weed management, reducing the use of chemical herbicides. Starting from the organic farmers’ experience, the study aimed to define the inhibitory action of Lolium multiflorum Lam., used as a cover crop [...] Read more.
The phytotoxic relationships between crops and weeds can cover a role in weed management, reducing the use of chemical herbicides. Starting from the organic farmers’ experience, the study aimed to define the inhibitory action of Lolium multiflorum Lam., used as a cover crop before rice sowing, against Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch, one of the main rice weeds. In vitro 7-day assays were carried out in Petri dishes to compare the effect of different L. multiflorum Lam. parts, in the form of aqueous extract or powder, on the seed germination and seedling growth of Oryza sativa L. and E. oryzoides and to verify the hypothesis of a higher susceptibility of the weed. The total polyphenolic content, as the potential source of allelochemicals, in the L. multiflorum parts was measured. The results showed that both species suffer the phytotoxic action of L. multiflorum, but a more marked effect against E. oryzoides was recorded. In according with the polyphenol quantities, stem and inflorescence extracts showed the more significant species-specific inhibition. In all assays, the weed showed a stronger reduction in the root length and seedling vigor index, and, in some cases, also in the germination percentage and shoot length compared to rice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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14 pages, 1130 KiB  
Article
Additive Effect of Botanical Insecticide and Entomopathogenic Fungi on Pest Mortality and the Behavioral Response of Its Natural Enemy
by G. Mandela Fernández-Grandon, Steven J. Harte, Jaspher Ewany, Daniel Bray and Philip C. Stevenson
Plants 2020, 9(2), 173; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants9020173 - 01 Feb 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4815
Abstract
Sustainable agricultural intensification employs alternatives to synthetic insecticides for pest management, but these are not always a direct replacement. Botanical insecticides, for example, have rapid knockdown but are highly labile and while biological pesticides are more persistent, they are slow acting. To mitigate [...] Read more.
Sustainable agricultural intensification employs alternatives to synthetic insecticides for pest management, but these are not always a direct replacement. Botanical insecticides, for example, have rapid knockdown but are highly labile and while biological pesticides are more persistent, they are slow acting. To mitigate these shortcomings, we combined the entomopathogenic fungus (EPF) Metarhizium anisopliae with pyrethrum and evaluated their efficacy against the bean aphid, Aphis fabae. To ascertain higher trophic effects, we presented these treatments to the parasitoid, Aphidius colemani, on an aphid infested plant in a Y-tube olfactometer and measured their preferences. Aphid mortality was significantly higher than controls when exposed to EPF or pyrethrum but was greater still when exposed to a combination of both treatments, indicating an additive effect. This highlights the potential for applications of pyrethrum at lower doses, or the use of less refined products with lower production costs to achieve control. While parasitoids were deterred by aphid infested plants treated with EPF, no preference was observed with the combination pesticide, which provides insight into the importance that both application technique and timing may play in the success of this new technology. These results indicate the potential for biorational pesticides that combine botanicals with EPF. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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11 pages, 816 KiB  
Article
Extracts of Common Pesticidal Plants Increase Plant Growth and Yield in Common Bean Plants
by Angela G. Mkindi, Yolice L. B. Tembo, Ernest R. Mbega, Amy K. Smith, Iain W. Farrell, Patrick A. Ndakidemi, Philip C. Stevenson and Steven R. Belmain
Plants 2020, 9(2), 149; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants9020149 - 23 Jan 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5325
Abstract
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is an important food and cash crop in many countries. Bean crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa are on average 50% lower than the global average, which is largely due to severe problems with pests and diseases as [...] Read more.
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is an important food and cash crop in many countries. Bean crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa are on average 50% lower than the global average, which is largely due to severe problems with pests and diseases as well as poor soil fertility exacerbated by low-input smallholder production systems. Recent on-farm research in eastern Africa has shown that commonly available plants with pesticidal properties can successfully manage arthropod pests. However, reducing common bean yield gaps still requires further sustainable solutions to other crop provisioning services such as soil fertility and plant nutrition. Smallholder farmers using pesticidal plants have claimed that the application of pesticidal plant extracts boosts plant growth, potentially through working as a foliar fertiliser. Thus, the aims of the research presented here were to determine whether plant growth and yield could be enhanced and which metabolic processes were induced through the application of plant extracts commonly used for pest control in eastern Africa. Extracts from Tephrosia vogelii and Tithonia diversifolia were prepared at a concentration of 10% w/v and applied to potted bean plants in a pest-free screen house as foliar sprays as well as directly to the soil around bean plants to evaluate their contribution to growth, yield and potential changes in primary or secondary metabolites. Outcomes of this study showed that the plant extracts significantly increased chlorophyll content, the number of pods per plant and overall seed yield. Other increases in metabolites were observed, including of rutin, phenylalanine and tryptophan. The plant extracts had a similar effect to a commercially available foliar fertiliser whilst the application as a foliar spray was better than applying the extract to the soil. These results suggest that pesticidal plant extracts can help overcome multiple limitations in crop provisioning services, enhancing plant nutrition in addition to their established uses for crop pest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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11 pages, 2563 KiB  
Article
Fumigant Toxicity in Myzus persicae Sulzer (Hemiptera: Aphididae): Controlled Release of (E)-anethole from Microspheres
by María J. Pascual-Villalobos, Manuel Cantó-Tejero, Pedro Guirao and María D. López
Plants 2020, 9(1), 124; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants9010124 - 18 Jan 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3425
Abstract
(E)-anethole is a phenylpropanoid that is the main compound found in the essential oils (EOs) of anise and fennel seeds, and either fumigant or direct contact activity of this compound has been demonstrated against aphids and stored product pests. In this work, [...] Read more.
(E)-anethole is a phenylpropanoid that is the main compound found in the essential oils (EOs) of anise and fennel seeds, and either fumigant or direct contact activity of this compound has been demonstrated against aphids and stored product pests. In this work, solid microspheres were prepared by three methods—oil emulsion entrapment, spray-drying, and complexed with β-cyclodextrin. Fumigation activity of each microsphere preparation was tested against the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae Sulzer (Hemiptera: Aphididae), on pepper leaves. The best insecticidal activity was with (E)-anethole encapsulated in oil emulsion beads and introduced to aphids as a vapour over 24 h, with an LC50 of 0.415 μL/L compared to 0.336 μL/L of vapors from free (E)-anethole. Scanning electron microscopy of the beads revealed a compact surface with low porosity that produced a controlled release of the bioactive for more than 21 d, whilst most of the volatile was evaporated within two days if applied unformulated. Spray drying gave spherical particles with the greatest encapsulated yield (73%) of 6.15 g of (E)-anethole incorporated per 100 g of powder. Further work will be done on improving the formulation methods and testing the solid microspheres in all aphid stages scaling up the experimental assay. It is foreseen that nanotechnology will play a role in future developments of low risk plant protection products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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10 pages, 1539 KiB  
Article
Bioactivity of Common Pesticidal Plants on Fall Armyworm Larvae (Spodoptera frugiperda)
by Kelita Phambala, Yolice Tembo, Trust Kasambala, Vernon H. Kabambe, Philip C. Stevenson and Steven R. Belmain
Plants 2020, 9(1), 112; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants9010112 - 15 Jan 2020
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7417
Abstract
The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a recent invasive pest species that has successfully established across sub-Saharan Africa where it continues to disrupt agriculture, particularly smallholder cereal production. Management of FAW in its native range in the Americas has led [...] Read more.
The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a recent invasive pest species that has successfully established across sub-Saharan Africa where it continues to disrupt agriculture, particularly smallholder cereal production. Management of FAW in its native range in the Americas has led to the development of resistance to many commercial pesticides before its arrival in Africa. Pesticide use may therefore be ineffective for FAW control in Africa, so new and more sustainable approaches to pest management are required that can help reduce the impact of this exotic pest. Pesticidal plants provide an effective and established approach to pest management in African smallholder farming and recent research has shown that their use can be cost-beneficial and sustainable. In order to optimize the use of botanical extracts for FAW control, we initially screened ten commonly used plant species. In laboratory trials, contact toxicity and feeding bioassays showed differential effects. Some plant species had little to no effect when compared to untreated controls; thus, only the five most promising plant species were selected for more detailed study. In contact toxicity tests, the highest larval mortality was obtained from Nicotiana tabacum (66%) and Lippia javanica (66%). Similarly, in a feeding bioassay L. javanica (62%) and N. tabacum (60%) exhibited high larval mortality at the highest concentration evaluated (10% w/v). Feeding deterrence was evaluated using glass-fibre discs treated with plant extracts, which showed that Cymbopogon citratus (36%) and Azadirachta indica (20%) were the most potent feeding deterrents among the pesticidal plants evaluated. In a screenhouse experiment where living maize plants infested with fall armyworm larvae were treated with plant extracts, N. tabacum and L. javanica were the most potent species at reducing foliar damage compared to the untreated control whilst the synthetic pesticide chlorpyrifos was the most effective in reducing fall armyworm foliar damage. Further field trial evaluation is recommended, particularly involving smallholder maize fields to assess effectiveness across a range of contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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11 pages, 267 KiB  
Article
United Forces of Botanical Oils: Efficacy of Neem and Karanja Oil against Colorado Potato Beetle under Laboratory Conditions
by Kateřina Kovaříková and Roman Pavela
Plants 2019, 8(12), 608; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants8120608 - 14 Dec 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4251
Abstract
Neem and karanja oil are the most promising botanical insecticides in crop protection nowadays. Given that information about the insecticidal abilities of these oils is lacking, the aim was to explore the effects of neem and karanja oil binary mixtures. The insecticidal activity [...] Read more.
Neem and karanja oil are the most promising botanical insecticides in crop protection nowadays. Given that information about the insecticidal abilities of these oils is lacking, the aim was to explore the effects of neem and karanja oil binary mixtures. The insecticidal activity of NeemAzal T/S (Trifolio-M GmbH, Lahnau, Germany) (neem oil), Rock Effect (Agro CS a.s., Česká Skalice, Czech Republic) (karanja oil), and their binary mixes (at 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1 volume ratios) against the larvae of the Colorado potato beetle (CPB; Leptinotarsa decemlineata) was studied. In our bioassays, a synergistic effect of the mixtures, which was dose-dependent, was observed for the first time against this pest. The most effective blend was the 1:1 ratio. Its efficacy was more or less the same as, or even greater than, the neem oil alone. The LC50 of neem oil two days after application was (0.075 g·L−1) and the LC50 of the mixture was (0.065 g·L−1). The LC50 of karanja oil was (0.582 g·L−1), which was much higher than the LC50 of neem oil. The LC90 of neem oil five days after application was (0.105 g·L−1) and the LC90 of the mixture was (0.037 g·L−1). The LC90 of karanja oil was (1.032 g·L−1). The results demonstrate that it is possible to lower the doses of both oils and get improved efficacy against CPB larvae; nevertheless, further verification of the results in field conditions is necessary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
11 pages, 1631 KiB  
Article
Phytochemical Analysis of Tephrosia vogelii across East Africa Reveals Three Chemotypes that Influence Its Use as a Pesticidal Plant
by Angela G. Mkindi, Yolice Tembo, Ernest R. Mbega, Beth Medvecky, Amy Kendal-Smith, Iain W. Farrell, Patrick A. Ndakidemi, Steven R. Belmain and Philip C. Stevenson
Plants 2019, 8(12), 597; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants8120597 - 12 Dec 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4541
Abstract
Tephrosia vogelii is a plant species chemically characterized by the presence of entomotoxic rotenoids and used widely across Africa as a botanical pesticide. Phytochemical analysis was conducted to establish the presence and abundance of the bioactive principles in this species across three countries [...] Read more.
Tephrosia vogelii is a plant species chemically characterized by the presence of entomotoxic rotenoids and used widely across Africa as a botanical pesticide. Phytochemical analysis was conducted to establish the presence and abundance of the bioactive principles in this species across three countries in East Africa: Tanzania, Kenya, and Malawi. Analysis of methanolic extracts of foliar parts of T. vogelii revealed the occurrence of two distinct chemotypes that were separated by the presence of rotenoids in one, and flavanones and flavones that are not bioactive against insects on the other. Specifically, chemotype 1 contained deguelin as the major rotenoid along with tephrosin, and rotenone as a minor component, while these compounds were absent from chemotype 2, which contained previously reported flavanones and flavones including obovatin-3-O-methylether. Chemotype 3 contained a combination of the chemical profiles of both chemotype 1 and 2 suggesting a chemical hybrid. Plant samples identified as chemotype 1 showed chemical consistency across seasons and altitudes, except in the wet season where a significant difference was observed for samples in Tanzania. Since farmers are unable to determine the chemical content of material available care must be taken in promoting this species for pest management without first establishing efficacy. While phytochemical analysis serves as an important tool for quality control of pesticidal plants, where analytical facilities are not available simple bioassays could be developed to enable extension staff and farmers to determine the efficacy of their plants and ensure only effective materials are adopted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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12 pages, 1650 KiB  
Article
Insect Antifeedant Components of Senecio fistulosus var. fistulosus—Hualtata
by Liliana Ruiz-Vásquez, Matías Reina, Víctor Fajardo, Matías López and Azucena González-Coloma
Plants 2019, 8(6), 176; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants8060176 - 15 Jun 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2866
Abstract
From a bioactive methanolic extract of Senecio fistulosus, the antifeedant effects of the alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions were tested against the insects Spodoptera littoralis, Myzus persicae and Rhopalosiphum padi, with the non-alkaloidal fraction being antifeedant. The phytochemical study of the [...] Read more.
From a bioactive methanolic extract of Senecio fistulosus, the antifeedant effects of the alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions were tested against the insects Spodoptera littoralis, Myzus persicae and Rhopalosiphum padi, with the non-alkaloidal fraction being antifeedant. The phytochemical study of the non-alkaloidal fraction of S. fistulosus, resulted in the isolation of four compounds, two 9-oxo-furanoeremophilanes (1, 2), an eremophilanolide, 1β,10β-epoxy-6-acetoxy-8α-hydroxy-eremofil-7(11)-en-8β,12-olide (3) and a maaliol derivative (4). The alkaloidal fraction yielded two known pyrrolizidine alkaloids (5, 6). Compounds 1, 3 and 4 are new natural products. Furanoeremophilane 2 was a strong antifeedant against S. littoralis and maaliane 4 inhibited the settling of M. persicae. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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Review

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17 pages, 366 KiB  
Review
Opportunities and Scope for Botanical Extracts and Products for the Management of Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) for Smallholders in Africa
by Naomi B. Rioba and Philip C. Stevenson
Plants 2020, 9(2), 207; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants9020207 - 06 Feb 2020
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7362
Abstract
Fall Armyworm (FAW) (Spodoptera frugiperda) is a polyphagous and highly destructive pest of many crops. It was recently introduced into Africa and now represents a serious threat to food security, particularly because of yield losses in maize, which is the staple [...] Read more.
Fall Armyworm (FAW) (Spodoptera frugiperda) is a polyphagous and highly destructive pest of many crops. It was recently introduced into Africa and now represents a serious threat to food security, particularly because of yield losses in maize, which is the staple food for the majority of small-scale farmers in Africa. The pest has also led to increased production costs, and threatens trade because of quarantines imposed on produce from the affected countries. There is limited specific knowledge on its management among smallholders since it is such a new pest in Africa. Some synthetic insecticides have been shown to be effective in controlling FAW, but in addition to the economic, health and environmental challenges of pesticide use insecticide resistance is highly prevalent owing to years of FAW management in the Americas. Therefore, there is a need for the development and use of alternatives for the management of FAW. These include plant-derived pesticides. Here we review the efficacy and potential of 69 plant species, which have been evaluated against FAW, and identify opportunities for use among small-scale maize farmers with a focus on how pesticidal plants might be adopted in Africa for management of FAW. The biological activities were diverse and included insecticidal, insectistatic (causing increased larval duration), larvicidal, reduced growth and acute toxicity (resulting in adverse effects within a short time after exposure). While most of these studies have been conducted on American plant taxa many South American plants are now cosmopolitan weeds so these studies are relevant to the African context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
11 pages, 1422 KiB  
Review
The Phytochemical Composition of Melia volkensii and Its Potential for Insect Pest Management
by Victor Jaoko, Clauvis Nji Tizi Taning, Simon Backx, Jackson Mulatya, Jan Van den Abeele, Titus Magomere, Florence Olubayo, Sven Mangelinckx, Stefaan P.O. Werbrouck and Guy Smagghe
Plants 2020, 9(2), 143; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants9020143 - 22 Jan 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5655
Abstract
Due to potential health and environmental risks of synthetic pesticides, coupled with their non-selectivity and pest resistance, there has been increasing demand for safer and biodegradable alternatives for insect pest management. Botanical pesticides have emerged as a promising alternative due to their non-persistence, [...] Read more.
Due to potential health and environmental risks of synthetic pesticides, coupled with their non-selectivity and pest resistance, there has been increasing demand for safer and biodegradable alternatives for insect pest management. Botanical pesticides have emerged as a promising alternative due to their non-persistence, high selectivity, and low mammalian toxicity. Six Meliaceae plant species, Azadirachta indica, Azadirachta excelsa, Azadirachta siamens, Melia azedarach, Melia toosendan, and Melia volkensii, have been subject to botanical pesticide evaluation. This review focuses on Melia volkensii, which has not been intensively studied. M. volkensii, a dryland tree species native to East Africa, has shown activity towards a broad range of insect orders, including dipterans, lepidopterans and coleopterans. Its extracts have been reported to have growth inhibiting and antifeedant properties against Schistocerca gregaria, Trichoplusia ni, Pseudaletia unipuncta, Epilachna varivestis, Nezara viridula, several Spodoptera species and other insect pests. Mortality in mosquitoes has also been reported. Several limonoids with a wide range of biological activities have been isolated from the plant, including volkensin, salannin, toosendanin, trichilin-class limonoids, volkendousin, kulactone among others. This paper presents a concise review of published information on the phytochemical composition and potential of M. volkensii for application in insect pest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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51 pages, 2262 KiB  
Review
Botanicals Against Tetranychus urticae Koch Under Laboratory Conditions: A Survey of Alternatives for Controlling Pest Mites
by Ricardo A. Rincón, Daniel Rodríguez and Ericsson Coy-Barrera
Plants 2019, 8(8), 272; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/plants8080272 - 07 Aug 2019
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6952
Abstract
Tetranychus urticae Koch is a phytophagous mite capable of altering the physiological processes of plants, causing damages estimated at USD$ 4500 per hectare, corresponding to approximately 30% of the total cost of pesticides used in some important crops. Several tools are used in [...] Read more.
Tetranychus urticae Koch is a phytophagous mite capable of altering the physiological processes of plants, causing damages estimated at USD$ 4500 per hectare, corresponding to approximately 30% of the total cost of pesticides used in some important crops. Several tools are used in the management of this pest, with chemical control being the most frequently exploited. Nevertheless, the use of chemically synthesized acaricides brings a number of disadvantages, such as the development of resistance by the pest, hormolygosis, incompatibility with natural predators, phytotoxicity, environmental pollution, and risks to human health. In that sense, the continuous search for botanical pesticides arises as a complementary alternative in the control of T. urticae Koch. Although a lot of information is unknown about its mechanisms of action and composition, there are multiple experiments in lab conditions that have been performed to determine the toxic effects of botanicals on this mite. Among the most studied botanical families for this purpose are plants from the Lamiaceae, the Asteraceae, the Myrtaceae, and the Apiaceae taxons. These are particularly abundant and exhibit several results at different levels; therefore, many of them can be considered as promising elements to be included into integrated pest management for controlling T. urticae. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)
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