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Polymers
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Biopolymer for Biofuel and Biorefineries
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Biopolymer for Biofuel and Biorefineries

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2022) | Viewed by 22316

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. T. M. Indra Mahlia

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Guest Editor
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
Interests: sustainable energy; energy and fuels; renewable energy; techno-economic analysis and life-cycle cost analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Md Mofijur Rahman

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Guest Editor
Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
Interests: renewable energy; alternative fuel; IC engine
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Muhammad Roil Bilad

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Guest Editor
Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Seri Iskandar 32610, Malaysia
Interests: membrane bioreactor; water and wastewater treatment; resource recovery from waste; membrane technology; waste to energy; electrolysis; forward osmosis; membrane distillation; process modeling and simulation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Arridina Susan Silitonga

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Co-Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Medan, Medan 20155, Indonesia
Interests: biofuel; renewable energy; design modelling

Special Issue Information

Dear Respected Colleagues,

Biofuel as a renewable energy sources has been researched extensively in past decades, primarily to satisfy the energy demands of the transportation sector, as a substitute for fossil fuel. Despite its significant progress, the full-scale substitution of fossil fuel with bio-fuel remains a challenge. So far, biofuel processing requires the use of poorly degradable synthetic polymers, which are undesirable due to their negative impact on health as well as their detrimental effect on the environment. For these reasons, in recent years, researchers have focused their efforts on the development of new classes of polymers, namely, biopolymers (e.g., polysaccharides and proteins) and biobased polymers (e.g., polylactide and bio-polyesters), as substitutes to synthetic polymers for the application of biofuel processing. Biopolymers are usually derived from renewable sources, plants, or other biological sources. They are not only used as feedstocks for biofuel production but also as feedstocks for biological/chemical processes to produce new classes of bio-based chemicals. For example, in the production of microalgae-based biofuel, biopolymers such as starch and chitosan may be used during biomass harvesting stage and for the refining of fatty acid. The biofuel industry would strongly benefit from the development of biobased polymer applications, in order to improve process sustainability. In this context, research on biopolymers for biofuel and biorefineries will be immensely important in the near future. In biorefining, biopolymers can be processed further via catalytic reactions to form other derivatives, for instance, lignin can be processed to form levulinic acid, xylitol, succinic acid, phenethyl alcohol, guaicol, catechol, and many others via process development. The production of such derivatives from biopolymer-based feedstocks is definitely beneficial economically, and may spur the usage of biofuel.

This Special Issue focuses on the development of biopolymers to support technological advancements in biofuel and biorefining, the conversion of biopolymers into other derivatives, and the exploration of other emerging applications of biopolymers.

Prof. Dr. T M Indra Mahlia
Dr. Md Mofijur Rahman
Dr. Muhammad Roil Bilad
Dr. Arridina Susan Silitonga
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • polymers from renewable resources
  • biomass-derived polymers
  • biopolymers
  • biodegradable polymers
  • biobased polymers
  • biofuel
  • biodiesel
  • sustainable polymers
  • chemical modification
  • microalgae-based polymers

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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10 pages, 6240 KiB  
Communication
Chitosan with Sulfonic Groups: A Catalyst for the Esterification of Caprylic Acid with Methanol
by José Castanheiro
Polymers 2021, 13(22), 3924; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13223924 - 13 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1824
Abstract
Esterification of caprylic acid with methanol was performed over chitosan with sulfonic acid groups, as a catalyst, at 60 °C. The sulfonic acid groups were introduced into chitosan (CH) by using chlorosulfonic acid. Catalysts were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), elemental analysis, [...] Read more.
Esterification of caprylic acid with methanol was performed over chitosan with sulfonic acid groups, as a catalyst, at 60 °C. The sulfonic acid groups were introduced into chitosan (CH) by using chlorosulfonic acid. Catalysts were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), elemental analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and acid–base titration. Catalytic activity increased with the amount of sulfonic acid groups present on chitosan. The 4–CH–SO3H catalyst (chitosan with sulfonic acid groups—sample 4 prepared) showed the highest activity of all materials. The esterification of caprylic acid with methanol was optimized using a 4–CH–SO3H catalyst. Under optimized reaction conditions, it was found that, at 60 °C, with 0.2 g of catalyst loading and with a molar ratio methanol to caprylic acid equal 1:95, a caprylic acid conversion of about 83%, after 4 h could be obtained. Catalytic stability of the 4–CH–SO3H material was evaluated through consecutive batch runs. After the second batch, the catalytic activity stabilized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymer for Biofuel and Biorefineries)
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15 pages, 4375 KiB  
Article
Selective Production of Bio-Based Linear Alpha-Olefin from Wasted Fatty Alcohol on Al2O3 for Bio-Based Chemicals
by Hye-Jin Lee, Il-Ho Choi, Seung-Wook Kim and Kyung-Ran Hwang
Polymers 2021, 13(17), 2850; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13172850 - 25 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2703
Abstract
The catalytic dehydration of a bio-based fatty alcohol was performed using Al2O3 prepared by solvothermal synthesis for selective production of long-chain linear-alpha-olefins (LAO). The effect of the synthesis temperature of alumina precursors on the dehydration of 1-octadecanol (C18H [...] Read more.
The catalytic dehydration of a bio-based fatty alcohol was performed using Al2O3 prepared by solvothermal synthesis for selective production of long-chain linear-alpha-olefins (LAO). The effect of the synthesis temperature of alumina precursors on the dehydration of 1-octadecanol (C18H38O) was examined based on the textural properties and Lewis acid–base properties of the catalysts. Amorphous alumina synthesized at 325 °C showed the highest surface area (233.07 m2/g) and total pore volume (1.237 cm3/g) among the catalysts and the best dehydration results: 93% conversion, 62% selectivity of 1-octadecene (C18H36), and 89% LAO purity. This was attributed to the increased Al/O ratio and atomic concentration of surface O in alumina, which were important factors in the catalytic dehydration of 1-octadecanol through the synergistic catalysis of acid–base pairs. The produced bio-based LAO can be key intermediates for synthesis of oxo alcohols and poly-alpha-olefins, as alternatives to petroleum-based LAO to achieve carbon neutrality in chemical industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymer for Biofuel and Biorefineries)
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17 pages, 4254 KiB  
Article
Novel Activated Carbon Nanofibers Composited with Cost-Effective Graphene-Based Materials for Enhanced Adsorption Performance toward Methane
by Faten Ermala Che Othman, Norhaniza Yusof, Noorfidza Yub Harun, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Juhana Jaafar, Farhana Aziz, Wan Norharyati Wan Salleh and Ahmad Fauzi Ismail
Polymers 2020, 12(9), 2064; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12092064 - 10 Sep 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2706
Abstract
Various types of activated carbon nanofibers’ (ACNFs) composites have been extensively studied and reported recently due to their extraordinary properties and applications. This study reports the fabrication and assessments of ACNFs incorporated with graphene-based materials, known as gACNFs, via simple electrospinning and subsequent [...] Read more.
Various types of activated carbon nanofibers’ (ACNFs) composites have been extensively studied and reported recently due to their extraordinary properties and applications. This study reports the fabrication and assessments of ACNFs incorporated with graphene-based materials, known as gACNFs, via simple electrospinning and subsequent physical activation process. TGA analysis proved graphene-derived rice husk ashes (GRHA)/ACNFs possess twice the carbon yield and thermally stable properties compared to other samples. Raman spectra, XRD, and FTIR analyses explained the chemical structures in all resultant gACNFs samples. The SEM and EDX results revealed the average fiber diameters of the gACNFs, ranging from 250 to 400 nm, and the successful incorporation of both GRHA and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) into the ACNFs’ structures. The results revealed that ACNFs incorporated with GRHA possesses the highest specific surface area (SSA), of 384 m2/g, with high micropore volume, of 0.1580 cm3/g, which is up to 88% of the total pore volume. The GRHA/ACNF was found to be a better adsorbent for CH4 compared to pristine ACNFs and reduced graphene oxide (rGO/ACNF) as it showed sorption up to 66.40 mmol/g at 25 °C and 12 bar. The sorption capacity of the GRHA/ACNF was impressively higher than earlier reported studies on ACNFs and ACNF composites. Interestingly, the CH4 adsorption of all ACNF samples obeyed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model at low pressure (4 bar), indicating the chemisorption behaviors. However, it obeyed the pseudo-first order at higher pressures (8 and 12 bar), indicating the physisorption behaviors. These results correspond to the textural properties that describe that the high adsorption capacity of CH4 at high pressure is mainly dependent upon the specific surface area (SSA), pore size distribution, and the suitable range of pore size. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymer for Biofuel and Biorefineries)
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Review

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21 pages, 3986 KiB  
Review
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs): Biopolymers for Biofuel and Biorefineries
by Shahina Riaz, Kyong Yop Rhee and Soo Jin Park
Polymers 2021, 13(2), 253; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13020253 - 13 Jan 2021
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 7295
Abstract
Fossil fuels are energy recourses that fulfill most of the world’s energy requirements. However, their production and use cause severe health and environmental problems including global warming and pollution. Consequently, plant and animal-based fuels (also termed as biofuels), such as biogas, biodiesel, and [...] Read more.
Fossil fuels are energy recourses that fulfill most of the world’s energy requirements. However, their production and use cause severe health and environmental problems including global warming and pollution. Consequently, plant and animal-based fuels (also termed as biofuels), such as biogas, biodiesel, and many others, have been introduced as alternatives to fossil fuels. Despite the advantages of biofuels, such as being renewable, environmentally friendly, easy to source, and reducing the dependency on foreign oil, there are several drawbacks of using biofuels including high cost, and other factors discussed in the fuel vs. food debate. Therefore, it is imperative to produce novel biofuels while also developing suitable manufacturing processes that ease the aforementioned problems. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are structurally diverse microbial polyesters synthesized by numerous bacteria. Moreover, this structural diversity allows PHAs to readily undergo methyl esterification and to be used as biofuels, which further extends the application value of PHAs. PHA-based biofuels are similar to biodiesel except for having a high oxygen content and no nitrogen or sulfur. In this article, we review the microbial production of PHAs, biofuel production from PHAs, parameters affecting the production of fuel from PHAs, and PHAs biorefineries. In addition, future work on the production of biofuels from PHAs is also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymer for Biofuel and Biorefineries)
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24 pages, 3440 KiB  
Review
Insight into the Sustainable Integration of Bio- and Petroleum Refineries for the Production of Fuels and Chemicals
by Wegik Dwi Prasetyo, Zulfan Adi Putra, Muhammad Roil Bilad, Teuku Meurah Indra Mahlia, Yusuf Wibisono, Nik Abdul Hadi Nordin and Mohd Dzul Hakim Wirzal
Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1091; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12051091 - 11 May 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5324
Abstract
A petroleum refinery heavily depends on crude oil as its main feedstock to produce liquid fuels and chemicals. In the long term, this unyielding dependency is threatened by the depletion of the crude oil reserve. However, in the short term, its price highly [...] Read more.
A petroleum refinery heavily depends on crude oil as its main feedstock to produce liquid fuels and chemicals. In the long term, this unyielding dependency is threatened by the depletion of the crude oil reserve. However, in the short term, its price highly fluctuates due to various factors, such as regional and global security instability causing additional complexity on refinery production planning. The petroleum refining industries are also drawing criticism and pressure due to their direct and indirect impacts on the environment. The exhaust gas emission of automobiles apart from the industrial and power plant emission has been viewed as the cause of global warming. In this sense, there is a need for a feasible, sustainable, and environmentally friendly generation process of fuels and chemicals. The attention turns to the utilization of biomass as a potential feedstock to produce substitutes for petroleum-derived fuels and building blocks for biochemicals. Biomass is abundant and currently is still low in utilization. The biorefinery, a facility to convert biomass into biofuels and biochemicals, is still lacking in competitiveness to a petroleum refinery. An attractive solution that addresses both is by the integration of bio- and petroleum refineries. In this context, the right decision making in the process selection and technologies can lower the investment and operational costs and assure optimum yield. Process optimization based on mathematical programming has been extensively used to conduct techno-economic and sustainability analysis for bio-, petroleum, and the integration of both refineries. This paper provides insights into the context of crude oil and biomass as potential refinery feedstocks. The current optimization status of either bio- or petroleum refineries and their integration is reviewed with the focus on the methods to solve the multi-objective optimization problems. Internal and external uncertain parameters are important aspects in process optimization. The nature of these uncertain parameters and their representation methods in process optimization are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymer for Biofuel and Biorefineries)
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