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Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements...
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Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE)

A special issue of Soil Systems (ISSN 2571-8789).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2022) | Viewed by 31333

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Matteo Spagnuolo

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Guest Editor
Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari “A. Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy
Interests: potentially toxic elements; X-ray spectroscopic techniques; synchrotron techniques; solidification/stabilization; bioavailability and bioaccessibility; biomarkers; bioindicators; ecotoxicity
Prof. Dr. Paola Adamo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici, Italy
Interests: soil contamination; potentially toxic elements; speciation; sequential extractions; bioavailability; bioaccessibility; microscopical and microanalytical techniques
Dr. Giovanni Garau

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Department of Agriculture, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
Interests: PTE-polluted soils; PTE mobility, toxicity, and bioavailability; impact of PTE on the structure and function of soil microbial communities; soil enzyme activity; use of amendments for the recovery of PTE-polluted soils; assisted phytoremediation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Potentially toxic elements (PTE) can cause significant damage to the environment and human health in function of their mobility and bioavailability. Given the urgency to remediate polluted soils all over the world, appropriate innovative and sustainable remediation strategies need to be developed, assessed, and promoted.

Before that, a detailed knowledge of PTE bioavailability and bioaccessibility as well as of soil processes affecting the contaminant dynamics in terms of lixiviation, colloidal transport, redox conditions, or microbial activity is essential in order to assess the actual danger/risk posed by contamination. It is widely recognized that bioavailability of toxic elements in soils depends on their solubility and geochemical forms, rather than on their origin and total concentration. Therefore, the knowledge of their spatial distribution and chemical speciation in soil is of paramount importance to perform an accurate risk assessment. Investigating these aspects requires the use of analytical techniques able to solve the high complexity of the soil matrix with a spatial resolution down to the micrometer- or even nanometer-scale.

In addition, a correct evaluation of a remediation intervention requires a detailed knowledge of the geochemical forms into which PTE have been converted following the soil treatment. This information is crucial to predict any possible transformation PTEs might naturally undergo over time or as consequence of physical-chemical perturbations that might impact the soil system.

The aim of this Special Issue is to address all the above reported aspects, i.e., the assessment of PTE contamination in soil systems using innovative approaches, the study of soil processes affecting pollutant dynamics and the application of new sustainable remediation techniques for the long-term reduction of the threat posed by PTE towards the health of the environment.

Dr. Matteo Spagnuolo
Prof. Dr. Paola Adamo
Dr. Giovanni Garau
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Soil Systems is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Potentially toxic elements
  • Soil contamination
  • Risk assessment
  • Bioavailability
  • Bioaccessibility
  • Soil processes
  • PTE distribution patterns
  • Spectroscopic techniques
  • Speciation techniques
  • PTE stabilization
  • PTE phytoextraction
  • Phytoremediation

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 192 KiB  
Editorial
Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE)
by Matteo Spagnuolo, Paola Adamo and Giovanni Garau
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(2), 55; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems6020055 - 15 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1376
Abstract
Potentially toxic elements (PTE) can cause significant damage to the environment and human health in the functions of mobility and bioavailability [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))

Research

Jump to: Editorial

24 pages, 1457 KiB  
Article
Prospects for the Use of Echinochloa frumentacea for Phytoremediation of Soils with Multielement Anomalies
by Svetlana V. Gorelova, Anna Yu. Muratova, Inga Zinicovscaia, Olga I. Okina and Aliaksandr Kolbas
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(1), 27; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems6010027 - 16 Mar 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2093
Abstract
In a model experiment, some adaptive characteristics, the bioaccumulation of toxic elements from technogenically-contaminated soils with polyelement anomalies, and rhizosphere microflora of Japanese millet, Echinochloa frumentacea, were studied using biochemical, microbiological, physicochemical (AAS, ICP-MS, INAA), and metagenomic (16S rRNA) methods of analysis. [...] Read more.
In a model experiment, some adaptive characteristics, the bioaccumulation of toxic elements from technogenically-contaminated soils with polyelement anomalies, and rhizosphere microflora of Japanese millet, Echinochloa frumentacea, were studied using biochemical, microbiological, physicochemical (AAS, ICP-MS, INAA), and metagenomic (16S rRNA) methods of analysis. Good adaptive characteristics (the content of photosynthetic pigments, low molecular weight antioxidants) of E. frumentacea grown on the soils of metallurgical enterprises were revealed. The toxic effect of soils with strong polyelement anomalies (multiple excesses of MPC for Cr, Ni, Zn, As, petroleum products) on biometric parameters and adaptive characteristics of Japanese millet were shown. The rhizosphere populations of E. frumentacea grown in the background soil were characterized by the lowest taxonomic diversity compared to the rhizobiomes of plants grown in contaminated urban soils. The minimal number of all groups of microorganisms studied was noted in the soils, which contain the highest concentrations of both inorganic (heavy metals) and organic (oil products) pollutants. The taxonomic structure of the rhizospheric microbiomes of E. frumentacea was characterized. It has been established that E. frumentacea accumulated Mn, Co, As, and Cd from soils with polyelement pollution within the average values. V was accumulated mainly in the root system (transfer factor from roots to shoots 0.01–0.05) and its absorption mechanism is rhizofiltration. The removal of Zn by shoots of E. frumentacea increased on soils where the content of the element exceeded the MPC and was 100–454 mg/kg of dry weight (168–508 g/ha). Analysis of the obtained data makes it possible to recommend E. frumentacea for phytoremediation of soil from Cu and Zn at a low level of soil polyelement contamination using grass mixtures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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13 pages, 14247 KiB  
Article
Investigating Lead Bioavailability in a Former Shooting Range by Soil Microanalyses and Earthworms Tests
by Carlo Porfido, Concetta Eliana Gattullo, Ignazio Allegretta, Nunzio Fiorentino, Roberto Terzano, Massimo Fagnano and Matteo Spagnuolo
Soil Syst. 2022, 6(1), 25; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems6010025 - 13 Mar 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2221
Abstract
Shooting ranges are among the major anthropogenic sources of Pb contamination in soils worldwide. Once they have reached the soil, bullet residues can have different fates according to the characteristics of the soil environment, leading to the formation of different Pb weathering products [...] Read more.
Shooting ranges are among the major anthropogenic sources of Pb contamination in soils worldwide. Once they have reached the soil, bullet residues can have different fates according to the characteristics of the soil environment, leading to the formation of different Pb weathering products whose stability is crucial for Pb accessibility to soil biota. In this study, Pb availability in a former polluted shooting range was investigated with a combination of conventional soil analyses, X-ray microanalyses and assays with the bio-indicator earthworm Eisenia andrei. Chemical extractions evidenced a rather low mobility of soil Pb, while micro-X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (µXRF) and scanning electron microscopy coupled with microanalysis (SEM-EDX) showed the formation of a weathering crust around Pb-containing bullet slivers dispersed within the soil. Such crusts consisted of a mixture of orthophosphates, including the highly insoluble Cl-pyromorphite. Furthermore, no acute toxicity effects and low Pb concentration values were measured in earthworm tissues (94.9 mg kg−1) and coelom fluids (794 µg L−1) after 28 days of exposure to the polluted soil. These results allow us to assume that most of the Pb in the shooting range soil underwent stabilization processes promoted by phosphatic fertilization. The soil was in fact used for agriculture after being dismissed for firing activities. Such a combined approach can be applied to study Pb bioavailability in other shooting ranges or, more generally, in soils heavily polluted with Pb. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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22 pages, 1476 KiB  
Article
Evaluating Potential Ecological Risks of Heavy Metals of Textile Effluents and Soil Samples in Vicinity of Textile Industries
by Jaskaran Kaur, Sandip Singh Bhatti, Sartaj Ahmad Bhat, Avinash Kaur Nagpal, Varinder Kaur and Jatinder Kaur Katnoria
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(4), 63; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems5040063 - 09 Oct 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3061
Abstract
The present study pertains to assessing the heavy metal (Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, and Zn) contents of untreated and treated effluents of two textile industries and agricultural soil samples in the vicinity of these industries located in Ludhiana, Punjab (India). The genotoxicity [...] Read more.
The present study pertains to assessing the heavy metal (Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, and Zn) contents of untreated and treated effluents of two textile industries and agricultural soil samples in the vicinity of these industries located in Ludhiana, Punjab (India). The genotoxicity of the effluents samples was estimated using Allium cepa root chromosomal aberration assay. The exposure of Allium cepa roots to untreated effluents from both industries resulted in the reduction of mitotic index (MI) and increase in chromosomal aberrations in the root tip meristematic cells when compared to those that were exposed to the treated effluents indicating the significant genotoxic potential of untreated effluents. Risk characterization of soil sample was carried out by calculating the potential ecological and human health risks of heavy metals. The hazard index was observed to be less than 1, indicating there was no potential health risk of heavy metals in soil samples. Furthermore, bioaccumulation potential studies on plant species grown in the vicinity of these industries have shown that bioaccumulation factor (BAF) varied as Ricinus communis L. > Chenopodium album L. > Cannabis sativa L. with Co and Pb having maximum and minimum values, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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18 pages, 2915 KiB  
Article
Effect of Municipal Solid Waste Compost on Antimony Mobility, Phytotoxicity and Bioavailability in Polluted Soils
by Stefania Diquattro, Giovanni Garau, Matteo Garau, Gian Paolo Lauro, Maria Vittoria Pinna and Paola Castaldi
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(4), 60; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems5040060 - 01 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2353
Abstract
The effect of a municipal solid waste compost (MSWC), added at 1 and 2% rates, on the mobility, phytotoxicity, and bioavailability of antimony (Sb) was investigated in two soils (SA: acidic soil; SB: alkaline soil), spiked with two Sb concentrations (100 and 1000 [...] Read more.
The effect of a municipal solid waste compost (MSWC), added at 1 and 2% rates, on the mobility, phytotoxicity, and bioavailability of antimony (Sb) was investigated in two soils (SA: acidic soil; SB: alkaline soil), spiked with two Sb concentrations (100 and 1000 mg kg−1). The impact of MSWC on microbial activity and biochemical functioning within the Sb-polluted soils was also considered. MSWC addition reduced water-soluble Sb and favored an increase in residual Sb (e.g., by 1.45- and 1.14-fold in SA-100 and SA-1000 treated with 2% MSWC, respectively). Significant increases in dehydrogenase activity were recorded in both the amended soils, as well as a clear positive effect of MSWC on the metabolic activity and catabolic diversity of respective microbial communities. MSWC alleviated Sb phytotoxicity in triticale plants and decreased Sb uptake by roots. However, increased Sb translocation from roots to shoots was recorded in the amended soils, according to the compost rate. Overall, the results obtained indicated that MSWC, particularly at a 2% rate, can be used for the recovery of Sb-polluted soils. It also emerged that using MSWC in combination with triticale plants can be an option for the remediation of Sb-polluted soils, by means of assisted phytoextraction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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14 pages, 1794 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Lead Phytoextraction by Endophytes from Indigenous Plants
by Ilaria Pietrini, Martina Grifoni, Elisabetta Franchi, Anna Cardaci, Francesca Pedron, Meri Barbafieri, Gianniantonio Petruzzelli and Marco Vocciante
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(3), 55; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems5030055 - 03 Sep 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3017
Abstract
Lead (Pb) is one of the most common metal pollutants in soil, and phytoextraction is a sustainable and cost-effective way to remove it. The purpose of this work was to develop a phytoextraction strategy able to efficiently remove Pb from the soil of [...] Read more.
Lead (Pb) is one of the most common metal pollutants in soil, and phytoextraction is a sustainable and cost-effective way to remove it. The purpose of this work was to develop a phytoextraction strategy able to efficiently remove Pb from the soil of a decommissioned fuel depot located in Italy by the combined use of EDTA and endophytic bacteria isolated from indigenous plants. A total of 12 endophytic strains from three native species (Lotus cornicolatus, Sonchus tenerrimus, Bromus sterilis) were isolated and selected to prepare a microbial consortium used to inoculate microcosms of Brassica juncea and Helianthus annuus. As for B. juncea, experimental data showed that treatment with microbial inoculum alone was the most effective in improving Pb phytoextraction in shoots (up to 25 times more than the control). In H. annuus, on the other hand, the most effective treatment was the combined treatment (EDTA and inoculum) with up to three times more Pb uptake values. These results, also validated by the metagenomic analysis, confirm that plant-microbe interaction is a crucial key point in phytoremediation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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14 pages, 2013 KiB  
Article
Initial Study on Phytoextraction for Recovery of Metals from Sorted and Aged Waste-to-Energy Bottom Ash
by Karin Karlfeldt Fedje, Viktoria Edvardsson and David Dalek
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(3), 53; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems5030053 - 31 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2532
Abstract
Sorted and aged bottom ash from Waste-to-Energy plants, i.e., MIBA (the Mineral fraction of Incinerator Bottom Ash) are potential source of metals that could be utilized to meet the increased demand from society. In this work, sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) and rapeseed [...] Read more.
Sorted and aged bottom ash from Waste-to-Energy plants, i.e., MIBA (the Mineral fraction of Incinerator Bottom Ash) are potential source of metals that could be utilized to meet the increased demand from society. In this work, sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) and rapeseed (Brassica napus) were cultivated in conventional MIBA to evaluate the possibility for phytoextraction, mainly of Zn, during the period of one cultivation season in the Nordic climate. The results show that metal extraction from MIBA using rapeseed and sunflowers is workable but that neither of the used plants is optimal, mainly due to the inhibited root development and low water- and nutrient-holding capacities of MIBA. The addition of fertilizer is also important for growth. There was a simultaneous accumulation of numerous metals in both plant types, and the highest metal content was generally found in the roots. Calculations indicated that the ash from rapeseed root incineration contained about 2% Zn, and the contents of Co, Cu, and Pb were comparable to those in workable ores. This initial study shows that cultivation in and phytoextraction on MIBA is possible, and that the potential for increased metal extraction is high. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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18 pages, 5362 KiB  
Article
Spatial Analysis of Soil Trace Element Contaminants in Urban Public Open Space, Perth, Western Australia
by Andrew W. Rate
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(3), 46; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems5030046 - 14 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2338
Abstract
Public recreation areas in cities may be constructed on land which has been contaminated by various processes over the history of urbanisation. Charles Veryard and Smith’s Lake Reserves are adjacent parklands in Perth, Western Australia with a history of horticulture, waste disposal and [...] Read more.
Public recreation areas in cities may be constructed on land which has been contaminated by various processes over the history of urbanisation. Charles Veryard and Smith’s Lake Reserves are adjacent parklands in Perth, Western Australia with a history of horticulture, waste disposal and other potential sources of contamination. Surface soil and soil profiles in the Reserves were sampled systematically and analysed for multiple major and trace elements. Spatial analysis was performed using interpolation and Local Moran’s I to define geochemical zones which were confirmed by means comparison and principal components analyses. The degree of contamination of surface soil in the Reserves with As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn was low. Greater concentrations of As, Cu, Pb, and Zn were present at depth in some soil profiles, probably related to historical waste disposal in the Reserves. The results show distinct advantages to using spatial statistics at the site investigation scale, and for measuring multiple elements not just potential contaminants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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13 pages, 3284 KiB  
Article
Phytoextraction of Heavy Metals by Various Vegetable Crops Cultivated on Different Textured Soils Irrigated with City Wastewater
by Iftikhar Ahmad, Saeed Ahmad Malik, Shafqat Saeed, Atta-ur Rehman and Tariq Muhammad Munir
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(2), 35; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems5020035 - 18 Jun 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2409
Abstract
A challenging task in urban or suburban agriculture is the sustainability of soil health when utilizing city wastewater, or its dilutes, for growing crops. A two-year field experiment was conducted to evaluate the comparative vegetable transfer factors (VTF) for four effluent-irrigated vegetable crops [...] Read more.
A challenging task in urban or suburban agriculture is the sustainability of soil health when utilizing city wastewater, or its dilutes, for growing crops. A two-year field experiment was conducted to evaluate the comparative vegetable transfer factors (VTF) for four effluent-irrigated vegetable crops (brinjal, spinach, cauliflower, and lettuce) grown on six study sites (1 acre each), equally divided into two soil textures (sandy loam and clay loam). Comparisons of the VTF factors showed spinach was a significant and the best phytoextractant, having the highest heavy metal values (Zn = 20.2, Cu = 12.3, Fe = 17.1, Mn = 30.3, Cd = 6.1, Cr = 7.6, Ni = 9.2, and Pb = 6.9), followed by cauliflower and brinjal, while lettuce extracted the lowest heavy metal contents (VTF: lettuce: Zn = 8.9, Cu = 4.2, Fe = 9.6, Mn = 6.6, Cd = 4.7, Cr = 2.9, Ni = 5.5, and Pb = 2.5) in response to the main (site and vegetable) or interactive (site * vegetable) effects. We suggest that, while vegetables irrigated with sewage water may extract toxic heavy metals and remediate soil, seriously hazardous/toxic contents in the vegetables may be a significant source of soil and environmental pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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18 pages, 1939 KiB  
Article
Heavy Metals Contamination of Urban Soils—A Decade Study in the City of Lisbon, Portugal
by Hugo Félix Silva, Nelson Frade Silva, Cristina Maria Oliveira and Manuel José Matos
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(2), 27; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems5020027 - 13 Apr 2021
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4867
Abstract
There is an intense and continuous growth of the world population living in cities. This increase in population means an increase in car traffic, an increase in new constructions and an increase in the production of waste that translates into an intensive use [...] Read more.
There is an intense and continuous growth of the world population living in cities. This increase in population means an increase in car traffic, an increase in new constructions and an increase in the production of waste that translates into an intensive use of land, particularly in terms of soil contaminants. Among other environmental contaminants, toxic metals, such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni) and chromium (Cr) represent a public health problem. In this study the content of toxic metals in Lisbon’s (Portugal) soils was determined. The study was conducted over approximately a decade in six city locations, with a total of about 700 samples. Each site has different urban characteristics: traffic zone, residential area, urban park and mixed areas. The study allowed to verify the heterogeneity of metal content values in the city soils and their dependence on local traffic. Metal contents were determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS). For each site the geo-accumulation index, pollution factor, degree of contamination, pollution load index and ecological risk factor were calculated. The mean concentrations of Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb in soils were 0.463, 44.0, 46.6 and 5.73 mg/kg of dry soil, respectively. In the last year of the study the values were 0.417, 51.5, 62.4 and 8.49 mg/kg of dry soil, respectively. Cd and Ni exceeded the typical content values of these metals in the earth’s crust, indicating their anthropogenic origin. The correlation analysis revealed a significant correlation between Cr and Ni, Cd and Ni and Cd and Pb contents in the city soils. Regarding the results obtained in this long monitoring campaign, Lisbon’s soils can be considered as having low levels of pollution by these metals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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21 pages, 9856 KiB  
Article
Integrated Geochemical Assessment of Soils and Stream Sediments to Evaluate Source-Sink Relationships and Background Variations in the Parauapebas River Basin, Eastern Amazon
by Gabriel Negreiros Salomão, Danielle de Lima Farias, Prafulla Kumar Sahoo, Roberto Dall’Agnol and Dibyendu Sarkar
Soil Syst. 2021, 5(1), 21; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/soilsystems5010021 - 22 Mar 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3355
Abstract
This study aims to handle an integrated evaluation of soil and stream sediment geochemical data to evaluate source apportionment and to establish geochemical threshold variations for Fe, Al, and 20 selected Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) in the Parauapebas River Basin (PB), Eastern Amazon. [...] Read more.
This study aims to handle an integrated evaluation of soil and stream sediment geochemical data to evaluate source apportionment and to establish geochemical threshold variations for Fe, Al, and 20 selected Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) in the Parauapebas River Basin (PB), Eastern Amazon. The data set used in this study is from the Itacaiúnas Geochemical Mapping and Background Project (ItacGMBP), which collected 364 surface soil (0–10 cm) samples and 189 stream sediments samples in the entire PB. The <0.177 mm fraction of these samples were analyzed for 51 elements by ICP-MS and ICP-AES, following an aqua regia digestion. The geochemical maps of many elements revealed substantial differences between the north (NPB) and the south (SPB) of PB, mainly due to the geological setting. The new statistically derived threshold values of the NPB and SPB regions were compared to the threshold of the whole PB, reported in previous studies, and to quality guidelines proposed by Brazilian environmental agencies. The natural variation of geochemical background in soils and stream sediments of PB should be considered prior to defining new guideline values. At the regional scale, the local anomalies are mostly influenced by the predominant lithology rather than any anthropogenic impact. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Soils Contaminated by Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE))
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