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State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022

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A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "General Virology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2022) | Viewed by 31408

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Boris Pastorino

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Guest Editor

Unité des Virus Émergents (UVE: Aix-Marseille Univ-IRD 190-Inserm 1207-IHU Méditerranée Infection), Aix-Marseille University, EFS-IRBA, Jardin du Pharo, 58 Boulevard Charles Livon, 13007 Marseille, France
Interests: flavivirus; chikungunya virus
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The emergence/re-emergence and spread of epidemic arboviral diseases in Europe has made it necessary to reassess surveillance and control strategies. In fact, many viruses are endemic in European countries, including West Nile virus, Usutu virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus and Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, as well as other viruses such as the California encephalitis virus antigenic group, for example. In addition, there is an increased risk of introduction and expansion of exotic arthropod vectors and autochthonous transmission of arboviruses, like dengue and chikungunya viruses, following new introductions from endemic areas.

Although Europe was not considered prone to arboviral diseases, recent vector competence and distribution data highlighted the risk of vector-borne disease transmission in Southern Europe. To anticipate and respond to such epidemic threats, there is an urgent need for a large risk assessment involving the global virology community.

In this Special Issue, we will focus on emerging or future arboviral threats in European countries with a review of the current knowledge on the areas of virus circulation, diagnostic tools, vector competence and distribution, as well as existing therapeutic strategies or those in development.

Dr. Boris Pastorino
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

vector-borne disease
flavivirus
alphavirus
phlebovirus
arthropod vectors
diagnosis
arbovirus
emerging and re-emerging viruses
antiviral treatment
vaccine

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 3302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Horses as Sentinels for the Circulation of Flaviviruses in Eastern–Central Germany

by Leonard M. R. Gothe, Stefanie Ganzenberg, Ute Ziegler, Anna Obiegala, Katharina L. Lohmann, Michael Sieg, Thomas W. Vahlenkamp, Martin H. Groschup, Uwe Hörügel and Martin Pfeffer

Viruses 2023, 15(5), 1108; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15051108 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1948

Abstract

Since 2018, autochthonous West Nile virus (WNV) infections have been regularly reported in eastern–central Germany. While clinically apparent infections in humans and horses are not frequent, seroprevalence studies in horses may allow the tracing of WNV and related flaviviruses transmission, such as tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and Usutu virus (USUV), and consequently help to estimate the risk of human infections. Hence, the aim of our study was to follow the seropositive ratio against these three viruses in horses in Saxony, Saxony Anhalt, and Brandenburg and to describe their geographic distribution for the year 2021. In early 2022, i.e., before the virus transmission season, sera from 1232 unvaccinated horses were tested using a competitive pan-flavivirus ELISA (cELISA). In order to estimate the true seropositive ratio of infection with WNV, TBEV, and USUV for 2021, positive and equivocal results were confirmed by a virus neutralization test (VNT). In addition, possible risk factors for seropositivity using questionnaires were analyzed using logistic regression based on questionnaires similar to our previous study from 2020. In total, 125 horse sera reacted positive in the cELISA. Based on the VNT, 40 sera showed neutralizing antibodies against WNV, 69 against TBEV, and 5 against USUV. Three sera showed antibodies against more than one virus, and eight were negative based on the VNT. The overall seropositive ratio was 3.3% (95% CI: 2.38–4.40) for WNV, 5.6% (95% CI: 4.44–7.04) for TBEV, and 0.4% (95% CI: 0.14–0.98) for USUV infections. While age and number of horses on the holding were factors predicting TBEV seropositivity, no risk factors were discovered for WNV seropositivity. We conclude that horses are useful sentinels to determine the flavivirus circulation in eastern–central Germany, as long as they are not vaccinated against WNV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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18 pages, 1445 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Dengue Infection in Asymptomatic Individuals during a Recent Outbreak in La Réunion

by Olga De Santis, Emilie Pothin, Nicolas Bouscaren, Seth R. Irish, Marie-Christine Jaffar-Bandjee, Luce Menudier, Julie Ramis, Cédric Schultz, Florence Lamaurt, Ania Wisniak, Antoine Bertolotti, Sarah Hafsia, Philippe Dussart, Laurence Baril, Patrick Mavingui and Antoine Flahault

Viruses 2023, 15(3), 742; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15030742 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1719

Abstract

The number of dengue cases has increased dramatically over the past 20 years and is an important concern, particularly as the trends toward urbanization continue. While the majority of dengue cases are thought to be asymptomatic, it is unknown to what extent these contribute to transmission. A better understanding of their importance would help to guide control efforts. In 2019, a dengue outbreak in La Reunion resulted in more than 18,000 confirmed cases. Between October 2019 and August 2020, 19 clusters were investigated in the south, west, and east of the island, enabling the recruitment of 605 participants from 368 households within a 200 m radius of the home of the index cases (ICs). No active asymptomatic infections confirmed by RT-PCR were detected. Only 15% were possible asymptomatic dengue infections detected by the presence of anti-dengue IgM antibodies. Only 5.3% of the participants had a recent dengue infection confirmed by RT-PCR. Although the resurgence of dengue in La Réunion is very recent (2016), the rate of anti-dengue IgG positivity, a marker of past infections, was already high at 43% in this study. Dengue transmission was focal in time and space, as most cases were detected within a 100-m radius of the ICs, and within a time interval of less than 7 days between infections detected in a same cluster. No particular demographic or socio-cultural characteristics were associated with dengue infections. On the other hand, environmental risk factors such as type of housing or presence of rubbish in the streets were associated with dengue infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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9 pages, 1011 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Genomic Analysis of West Nile Virus Lineage 1 Detected in Mosquitoes during the 2020–2021 Outbreaks in Andalusia, Spain

by María José Ruiz-López, Milagros Muñoz-Chimeno, Jordi Figuerola, Ana M. Gavilán, Sarai Varona, Isabel Cuesta, Josué Martínez-de la Puente, Ángel Zaballos, Francisca Molero, Ramón C. Soriguer, Maria Paz Sánchez-Seco, Santiago Ruiz and Ana Vázquez

Viruses 2023, 15(2), 266; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15020266 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2090

Abstract

Emerging infectious diseases are one of the most important global health challenges because of their impact on human and animal health. The vector-borne West Nile virus (WNV) is transmitted between birds by mosquitos, but it can also infect humans and horses causing disease. The local circulation of WNV in Spain has been known for decades, and since 2010, there have been regular outbreaks in horses, although only six cases were reported in humans until 2019. In 2020, Spain experienced a major outbreak with 77 human cases, which was followed by 6 additional cases in 2021, most of them in the Andalusian region (southern Spain). This study aimed to characterize the genomes of the WNV circulating in wild-trapped mosquitoes during 2020 and 2021 in Andalusia. We sequenced the WNV consensus genome from two mosquito pools and carried out the phylogenetic analyses. We also compared the obtained genomes with those sequenced from human samples obtained during the outbreak and the genomes obtained previously in Spain from birds (2007 and 2017), mosquitoes (2008) and horses (2010) to better understand the eco-epidemiology of WNV in Spain. As expected, the WNV genomes recovered from mosquito pools in 2020 were closely related to those recovered from humans of the same outbreak. In addition, the strain of WNV circulating in 2021 was highly related to the WNV strain that caused the 2020 outbreak, suggesting that WNV is overwintering in the area. Consequently, future outbreaks of the same strain may occur in in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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14 pages, 2253 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of West Nile Virus Lineage 2 in Eastern Romania and First Identification of Sindbis Virus RNA in Mosquitoes Analyzed using High-Throughput Microfluidic Real-Time PCR

by Luciana Alexandra CRIVEI, Sara MOUTAILLER, Gaëlle GONZALEZ, Steeve LOWENSKI, Ioana Cristina CRIVEI, Daniela POREA, Dragoș Constantin ANITA, Ioana Alexandra RATOI, Stéphan ZIENTARA, Luanda Elena OSLOBANU, Alexandru TOMAZATOS, Gheorghe SAVUTA and Sylvie LECOLLINET

Viruses 2023, 15(1), 186; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15010186 - 09 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2094

Abstract

The impact of mosquito-borne diseases on human and veterinary health is being exacerbated by rapid environmental changes caused mainly by changing climatic patterns and globalization. To gain insight into mosquito-borne virus circulation from two counties in eastern and southeastern Romania, we have used a combination of sampling methods in natural, urban and peri-urban sites. The presence of 37 mosquito-borne viruses in 16,827 pooled mosquitoes was analyzed using a high-throughput microfluidic real-time PCR assay. West Nile virus (WNV) was detected in 10/365 pools of Culex pipiens (n = 8), Culex modestus (n = 1) and Aedes vexans (n = 1) from both studied counties. We also report the first molecular detection of Sindbis virus (SINV) RNA in the country in one pool of Culex modestus. WNV infection was confirmed by real-time RT-PCR (10/10) and virus isolation on Vero or C6/36 cells (four samples). For the SINV-positive pool, no cytopathic effectwas observed after infection of Vero or C6/36 cells, but no amplification was obtained in conventional SINV RT-PCR. Phylogenetic analysis of WNV partial NS5 sequences revealed that WNV lineage 2 of theCentral-Southeast European clade, has a wider circulation in Romania than previously known. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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17 pages, 2622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Epidemiological and Evolutionary Analysis of West Nile Virus Lineage 2 in Italy

by Giulia Mencattelli, Andrea Silverj, Federica Iapaolo, Carla Ippoliti, Liana Teodori, Annapia Di Gennaro, Valentina Curini, Luca Candeloro, Annamaria Conte, Andrea Polci, Daniela Morelli, Maria Gabriella Perrotta, Giovanni Marini, Roberto Rosà, Federica Monaco, Nicola Segata, Annapaola Rizzoli, Omar Rota-Stabelli, Giovanni Savini and West Nile Working Group

Viruses 2023, 15(1), 35; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15010035 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2169

Abstract

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus potentially causing serious illness in humans and other animals. Since 2004, several studies have highlighted the progressive spread of WNV Lineage 2 (L2) in Europe, with Italy being one of the countries with the highest number of cases of West Nile disease reported. In this paper, we give an overview of the epidemiological and genetic features characterising the spread and evolution of WNV L2 in Italy, leveraging data obtained from national surveillance activities between 2011 and 2021, including 46 newly assembled genomes that were analysed under both phylogeographic and phylodynamic frameworks. In addition, to better understand the seasonal patterns of the virus, we used a machine learning model predicting areas at high-risk of WNV spread. Our results show a progressive increase in WNV L2 in Italy, clarifying the dynamics of interregional circulation, with no significant introductions from other countries in recent years. Moreover, the predicting model identified the presence of suitable conditions for the 2022 earlier and wider spread of WNV in Italy, underlining the importance of using quantitative models for early warning detection of WNV outbreaks. Taken together, these findings can be used as a reference to develop new strategies to mitigate the impact of the pathogen on human and other animal health in endemic areas and new regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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12 pages, 854 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vector Competence of German Aedes punctor (Kirby, 1837) for West Nile Virus Lineages 1 and 2

by Christin Körsten, Amira A. AL-Hosary, Mandy Schäfer, Birke A. Tews, Doreen Werner, Helge Kampen, Ana Vasic and Cornelia Silaghi

Viruses 2022, 14(12), 2787; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14122787 - 14 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1647

Abstract

West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic flavivirus transmitted by mosquitoes as a biological vector. Because of its biting behavior, the widespread snow-melt mosquito Aedes punctor could be a potential bridge vector for WNV to humans and nonhuman mammals. However, little is known on its role in transmission of WNV. The aim of this study was to determine the vector competence of German Ae. punctor for WNV lineages 1 and 2. Field-collected larvae and pupae were reared to adults and offered infectious blood containing either an Italian WNV lineage 1 or a German WNV lineage 2 strain via cotton stick feeding. Engorged females were incubated for 14/15 or 21 days at 18 °C. After incubation; surviving mosquitoes were dissected and forced to salivate. Mosquito bodies with abdomens, thoraces and heads, legs plus wings and saliva samples were investigated for WNV RNA by RT-qPCR. Altogether, 2/70 (2.86%) and 5/85 (5.88%) mosquito bodies were found infected with WNV lineage 1 or 2, respectively. In two mosquitoes, viral RNA was also detected in legs and wings. No saliva sample contained viral RNA. Based on these results, we conclude that Ae. punctor does not play an important role in WNV transmission in Germany. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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12 pages, 5954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fitness of mCherry Reporter Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus in Tick Experimental Models

by Ádám Kevély, Veronika Prančlová, Monika Sláviková, Jan Haviernik, Václav Hönig, Eva Nováková, Martin Palus, Daniel Růžek, Boris Klempa and Juraj Koči

Viruses 2022, 14(12), 2673; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14122673 - 29 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1696

Abstract

The tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) causes a most important viral life-threatening illness transmitted by ticks. The interactions between the virus and ticks are largely unexplored, indicating a lack of experimental tools and systematic studies. One such tool is recombinant reporter TBEV, offering antibody-free visualization to facilitate studies of transmission and interactions between a tick vector and a virus. In this paper, we utilized a recently developed recombinant TBEV expressing the reporter gene mCherry to study its fitness in various tick-derived in vitro cell cultures and live unfed nymphal Ixodes ricinus ticks. The reporter virus was successfully replicated in tick cell lines and live ticks as confirmed by the plaque assay and the mCherry-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Although a strong mCherry signal determined by fluorescence microscopy was detected in several tick cell lines, the fluorescence of the reporter was not observed in the live ticks, corroborated also by immunoblotting. Our data indicate that the mCherry reporter TBEV might be an excellent tool for studying TBEV-tick interactions using a tick in vitro model. However, physiological attributes of a live tick, likely contributing to the inactivity of the reporter, warrant further development of reporter-tagged viruses to study TBEV in ticks in vivo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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13 pages, 535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vector Competence of Mosquitoes from Germany for Sindbis Virus

by Stephanie Jansen, Renke Lühken, Michelle Helms, Björn Pluskota, Wolf Peter Pfitzner, Sandra Oerther, Norbert Becker, Jonas Schmidt-Chanasit and Anna Heitmann

Viruses 2022, 14(12), 2644; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v14122644 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2197

Abstract

Transmission of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) are an emerging global health threat in the last few decades. One important arbovirus family is the Togaviridae, including the species Sindbis virus within the genus Alphavirus. Sindbis virus (SINV) is transmitted by mosquitoes, but available data about the role of different mosquito species as potent vectors for SINV are scarce. Therefore, we investigated seven mosquito species, collected from the field in Germany (Ae. koreicus, Ae. geniculatus, Ae. sticticus, Cx. torrentium, Cx. pipiens biotype pipiens) as well as lab strains (Ae. albopictus, Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, Cx. quinquefasciatus), for their vector competence for SINV. Analysis was performed via salivation assay and saliva was titrated to calculate the amount of infectious virus particles per saliva sample. All Culex and Aedes species were able to transmit SINV. Transmission could be detected at all four investigated temperature profiles (of 18 ± 5 °C, 21 ± 5 °C, 24 ± 5 °C or 27 ± 5 °C), and no temperature dependency could be observed. The concentration of infectious virus particles per saliva sample was in the same range for all species, which may suggest that all investigated mosquito species are able to transmit SINV in Germany. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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19 pages, 15880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution and Burden of Emerging Arboviruses in French Guiana

by Sarah Bailly, Dominique Rousset, Camille Fritzell, Nathanaël Hozé, Sarrah Ben Achour, Léna Berthelot, Antoine Enfissi, Jessica Vanhomwegen, Henrik Salje, Sandrine Fernandes-Pellerin, Mona Saout, Anne Lavergne, Jean-Claude Manuguerra, Jean-François Carod, Félix Djossou, Simon Cauchemez and Claude Flamand

Viruses 2021, 13(7), 1299; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13071299 - 02 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3076

Abstract

Despite the health, social and economic impact of arboviruses in French Guiana, very little is known about the extent to which infection burden is shared between individuals. We conducted a large multiplexed serological survey among 2697 individuals from June to October 2017. All serum samples were tested for IgG antibodies against DENV, CHIKV, ZIKV and MAYV using a recombinant antigen-based microsphere immunoassay with a subset further evaluated through anti-ZIKV microneutralization tests. The overall DENV seroprevalence was estimated at 73.1% (70.6–75.4) in the whole territory with estimations by serotype at 68.9% for DENV-1, 38.8% for DENV-2, 42.3% for DENV-3, and 56.1% for DENV-4. The overall seroprevalence of CHIKV, ZIKV and MAYV antibodies was 20.3% (17.7–23.1), 23.3% (20.9–25.9) and 3.3% (2.7–4.1), respectively. We provide a consistent overview of the burden of emerging arboviruses in French Guiana, with useful findings for risk mapping, future prevention and control programs. The majority of the population remains susceptible to CHIKV and ZIKV, which could potentially facilitate the risk of further re-emergences. Our results underscore the need to strengthen MAYV surveillance in order to rapidly detect any substantial changes in MAYV circulation patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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Review

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13 pages, 328 KiB

Open AccessReview

Human Arboviral Infections in Italy: Past, Current, and Future Challenges

by Benedetta Rossi, Filippo Barreca, Domenico Benvenuto, Neva Braccialarghe, Laura Campogiani, Alessandra Lodi, Camilla Aguglia, Rosario Alessandro Cavasio, Maria Laura Giacalone, Dimitra Kontogiannis, Martina Moccione, Vincenzo Malagnino, Massimo Andreoni, Loredana Sarmati and Marco Iannetta

Viruses 2023, 15(2), 368; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15020368 - 27 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2091

Abstract

Arboviruses represent a public health concern in many European countries, including Italy, mostly because they can infect humans, causing potentially severe emergent or re-emergent diseases, with epidemic outbreaks and the introduction of endemic circulation of new species previously confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. In this review, we summarize the Italian epidemiology of arboviral infection over the past 10 years, describing both endemic and imported arboviral infections, vector distribution, and the influence of climate change on vector ecology. Strengthening surveillance systems at a national and international level is highly recommended to be prepared to face potential threats due to arbovirus diffusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

14 pages, 1825 KiB

Open AccessReview

Human Usutu Virus Infections in Europe: A New Risk on Horizon?

by Dániel Cadar and Yannick Simonin

Viruses 2023, 15(1), 77; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v15010077 - 27 Dec 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2170

Abstract

The Usutu virus (USUV), a neurotropic mosquito-borne flavivirus discovered in 1959 in South Africa, has spread over the last twenty years across the European continent. This virus follows an enzootic cycle involving mosquitoes and birds. This caused epizootics with significant bird mortality in Europe in 2016 and 2018. It can also occasionally infect humans and other mammals, including horses and bats, which act as incidental or dead-end hosts. The zoonotic risk associated with this succession of avian epizootics in Europe deserves attention, even if, to date, human cases remain exceptional. Human infection is most often asymptomatic or responsible for mild clinical symptoms. However, human Usutu infections have also been associated with neurological disorders, such as encephalitis and meningoencephalitis. One of the major complexities of the study of USUV pathogenesis is the presence of a great diversity of lineages which could co-circulate spatiotemporally. In this review we discuss several aspects of the circulation of Usutu virus in humans in Europe, the neurological disorders associated, involved viral lineages, and the issues and questions raised by their circulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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16 pages, 743 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ecological Effects on the Dynamics of West Nile Virus and Avian Plasmodium: The Importance of Mosquito Communities and Landscape

by Martina Ferraguti, Josué Martínez-de la Puente and Jordi Figuerola

Viruses 2021, 13(7), 1208; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13071208 - 23 Jun 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4012

Abstract

Humans and wildlife are at risk from certain vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, and West Nile and yellow fevers. Factors linked to global change, including habitat alteration, land-use intensification, the spread of alien species, and climate change, are operating on a global scale and affect both the incidence and distribution of many vector-borne diseases. Hence, understanding the drivers that regulate the transmission of pathogens in the wild is of great importance for ecological, evolutionary, health, and economic reasons. In this literature review, we discuss the ecological factors potentially affecting the transmission of two mosquito-borne pathogens circulating naturally between birds and mosquitoes, namely, West Nile virus (WNV) and the avian malaria parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Traditionally, the study of pathogen transmission has focused only on vectors or hosts and the interactions between them, while the role of landscape has largely been ignored. However, from an ecological point of view, it is essential not only to study the interaction between each of these organisms but also to understand the environmental scenarios in which these processes take place. We describe here some of the similarities and differences in the transmission of these two pathogens and how research into both systems may facilitate a greater understanding of the dynamics of vector-borne pathogens in the wild. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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12 pages, 13210 KiB

Open AccessReview

Orthobunyaviruses: From Virus Binding to Penetration into Mammalian Host Cells

by Stefan Windhaber, Qilin Xin and Pierre-Yves Lozach

Viruses 2021, 13(5), 872; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/v13050872 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3202

Abstract

With over 80 members worldwide, Orthobunyavirus is the largest genus in the Peribunyaviridae family. Orthobunyaviruses (OBVs) are arthropod-borne viruses that are structurally simple, with a trisegmented, negative-sense RNA genome and only four structural proteins. OBVs are potential agents of emerging and re-emerging diseases and overall represent a global threat to both public and veterinary health. The focus of this review is on the very first steps of OBV infection in mammalian hosts, from virus binding to penetration and release of the viral genome into the cytosol. Here, we address the most current knowledge and advances regarding OBV receptors, endocytosis, and fusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Arbovirus Research in Europe 2022)

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