Next Article in Journal
Geoheritage of the Monchegorsk Igneous Layered Paleoproterozoic Intrusion (Kola Peninsula, Arctic Russia): Evaluation and Geotourism Opportunities
Next Article in Special Issue
The Voyatzis Mansion in Aegina, Greece: A Historical and Architectural Approach and Physicochemical Documentation of the Wall Painting Decoration
Previous Article in Journal
A New Approach to Studying Traditional Roof Behaviour in a Changing Climate—A Case Study from the Mediterranean Island of Malta
Previous Article in Special Issue
Fluorosilane Water-Repellent Coating for the Protection of Marble, Wood and Other Materials
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Heritage
Volume 4
Issue 4
10.3390/heritage4040197
heritage-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Original Varnish Recipes in Post-Byzantine Painting Manuals

by
Georgios P. Mastrotheodoros
1,2,3,* and
Konstantinos G. Beltsios
1
1
School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15772 Zografou, Greece
2
Conservation of Antiquities & Works of Art Department, West Attika University, 12243 Aegaleo, Greece
3
Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Centre of Scientific Research, 15341 Aghia Paraskevi, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Heritage 2021, 4(4), 3572-3582; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage4040197
Submission received: 31 August 2021 / Revised: 13 October 2021 / Accepted: 13 October 2021 / Published: 17 October 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transdisciplinary Multispectral Modelling and Cooperation for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
During the last decades, manuscripts have become increasingly available through digitization and deposition in online repositories. This trend has very much facilitated primary source research, as scholars are no longer subjected to time- and effort-consuming processes such as travel, applications for photography permissions, and so on. In this framework, the authors set forth the results of research that deals with post-Byzantine panel-painting varnish recipes which were found in a hitherto unpublished Greek painting manual dating back to 1824. The recipes in consideration are compared to those existing in the renowned “Hermeneia” by Dionysios of Fourna (early 18th century) painter’s manual. A brief discussion dealing with various pertinent terms, along with a note on data deriving from the analytical investigation of varnish samples stemming from post-Byzantine icons are also included in this work. The study reveals a shift towards lean and intermediate varnish recipes during the early 19th century that might reflect the progression of resins and oleoresins, and the gradual replacement of oil-based varnishes. In addition, a unique recipe describing various methods of varnish application is transcribed and commented upon. Finally, the analytical data revealed an unexpected employment of a protein-based varnish in a mid-19th century icon.

1. Introduction

Varnish is an essential component of paintings because it offers protection against wear and the action of various environmental factors, while it also improves the appearance of a painting through color saturation and imparting gloss [1,2]. Varnishes have been employed by painters since ancient times, and this is well inferred by sporadic references in antiquity texts [3]. Although very little is known regarding the compounds used for varnishing in ancient times, there is a considerable body of information regarding medieval and later varnishes: on this basis, it appears that up to the 16th century (henceforth c.), heat-treated mixtures of drying oils (e.g., linseed or walnut oil) and resins (e.g., sandarac or mastic) were practically the sole means of varnishing paintings [3,4]. Coatings of this type are often called “oil-resin” or “fat” varnishes [1,5], and occasionally contained ingredients beyond resins and drying oils (e.g., solvents, coloring agents). From the late 16th c. onwards, a new type of painting varnishes emerged, namely those produced through dissolution of resins in volatile organic compounds, that is, the so-called “solvent-type” or “lean” varnishes [1,3,5]. In-between these two types of varnishes, one may also recognize an intermediate group, namely those that contained both resins and oleoresins (raw exudates, e.g., Venice turpentine from European larch), that may be designated “semi-fat” or “mixed” varnishes [5]. It is also worth noting that beyond oil or/and resin-containing varnishes, egg glair (often combined with other water-soluble substances, such as gums) was occasionally used for varnishing purposes as well [2,3].
Information pertaining to varnishes and the process of varnishing appears sporadically in some antiquity sources, yet detailed varnish recipes are mostly found in texts dating from the 8th c. AD onwards [3]. Research in relevant archival material has been very much facilitated during the last decades, as there is a growing tendency towards digitization of manuscripts and pertinent archival material; in addition, pre-existing manuscripts’ reproductions (e.g., microfilms and photographs) are also digitized and stored in repositories [6,7]. Quite often, the relevant archives are made publicly available through the web, thus resulting in the creation of several open access online repositories, such as those of the British Library (http://www.bl.uk/, accessed: 3 August 2021), the Vatican Library (https://digi.vatlib.it/, accessed: 3 August 2021), and the National Library of Greece (https://www.nlg.gr/, accessed: 3 August 2021). In addition, publications of primary sources (i.e., manuscripts) that have gone out of copyright are also digitized and made freely available through various internet platforms; examples include the monumental two-volume work of Mary Philadelphia Merrifield on original painting treatises that was digitized by Google [8], and the 1900 edition of the Dionysios of Fourna “Hermeneia of the art of painting” [9], which was digitized in the context of a University of Crete initiative (for a recent reprint of the most complete 1909 edition of the latter text see [10]). Besides, digitization has very much facilitated the research of primary sources, as scholars may avoid the effort- and time-consuming processes (such as travel, applications for study/photography permissions, etc.) that are often prerequisites when it comes to the study of library, archival, and museum objects.
Varnish recipes survive in a great number of technical texts/painting manuals. For instance, the first book of the circa 1100 AD Theophilus’ “De diversis artibus” (or “Schedula diversarum atrium”) contains two extracts on the preparation of heat-treated oil plus resin varnishes [11]. A similar recipe describing the preparation of varnish through heat-treatment of a linseed oil plus resin mixture is found in the “Liber diversarum arcium” manuscript (“Montpelier MS”), which is dated to ca. 1300 AD [12]. Interestingly, within the renowned and very detailed “Il libro dell’ arte” (ca. 1400 AD), Cennino Cennini makes frequent reference to a certain “liquid varnish” (“vernice liquida”), yet he says nothing of its ingredients; this led the translator and commentator of Cennini’s text, Lara Broecke, to assume that Cennino purchased this varnish ready-made [13]. However, the somewhat later (ca. 1425–1450 AD, [14]) “Il libro dei colori” (also known as the Bolognese manuscript) does include several “vernice liquida” recipes, revealing that the latter were in fact mixtures of drying oil(s) plus resin(s) [8]. Several varnish recipes are included in the Strasburg Manuscript, a German recipe compilation dating to 1400–1570 AD [14], while relevant recipes are also found in many later-written sources [15]. It is worth noting that recently, several attempts to reconstruct varnish recipes and characterize (by means of analytical techniques) the pertinent products have emerged [5,16,17,18,19]. Such studies lead to a considerable improvement of our understanding as regards the nature and properties of the original varnishes, and can also shed light on the processes involved in varnish degradation.
However, when it comes to the Greek technical literature, one finds that the information is very scarce. Indeed, up to today only a couple of medieval Greek texts that pertain to painting have been spotted [20,21], none of which contains reference to varnish(ing). The same appears to apply for the first part of the post-Byzantine period (i.e., the period following the Seize of Constantinople by Ottomans/1453 AD), yet the picture changes abruptly during the 18th and 19th centuries, when tens of painting manuals were circulating among Greek painters [22]. Undoubtedly, the most famous Greek manual is the so-called “Hermeneia of the art of painting” (henceforth “Hermeneia”) that was compiled in circa 1730 AD by the hieromonk and icon painter Dionysios, who gathered and rearranged several pre-existing texts, adding some prototype contributions [10,22]. This manual is comprised of a detailed technical and an extended iconographical part, and was obviously designated to serve as a handy guide for the practitioners of painting [14]. The tens of “Hermeneia” copies that survive today [22] obviously indicate that it had gained wide circulation among painters. The most accurate, critical Greek publication of the text is due to A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus and emerged in 1909 (Figure 1 left). In addition, the “Hermeneia” text stimulated the interest of several non-Greek scholars, and it ended up being gradually translated into various languages [22]. However, the Dionysios’ “Hermeneia” is by no means the sole representative of the Greek post-Byzantine technical literature on painting. Indeed, recent research has brought to light several sources that deviate substantially in terms of content from the aforementioned text, indicating the existence of at least three groups of different Greek painting manuals [23]. In addition, quite recently, two other Greek “Hermeneia” texts were transcribed and printed in Greek [24,25].
The primary scope of the current study is to bring forward and present varnish-related material from a largely unknown and hitherto unpublished painting manual that was compiled by a Greek painter named Ioannis Zografos in 1824 AD (Figure 1 right). The varnish recipes found in the latter text are compared with those of the renowned Dionysios’ “Hermeneia” manual, thus revealing interesting trends as regards the varnish raw materials and application methods employed by late icon painters (18th–19th c., Greece).
Deeper insights on the subject are also attempted through the analytical (FTIR-ATR, see next for details) investigation of varnish samples from selected post-Byzantine icons. Besides, analytical/spectroscopic techniques are of indispensable value when it comes to the study of artifacts’ manufacturing materials and techniques, as they allow for their proper identification [26,27,28,29]. Note also that the data deriving from the scientific investigation of artifacts may considerably facilitate decision making and lead to optimized strategies in the field of conservation/restoration [16,30,31].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. The Painitng Manuals in Consideration

Recipes relevant to varnish(ing) appearing in two painting manuals will be herein discussed. The “Hermeneia” painter’s manual that was compiled in circa 1730 AD by the hieromonk and icon painter Dionysios of Fourna (village in Evrytania territory, central Greece) is in fact a collection of various pre-existing texts that were rearranged and enriched by certain prototype passages of Dionysios [10,22]. This particular text is composed of two distinct parts, namely a technological and an iconographical one. The former contains a relatively detailed reference to the materials and techniques of panel (i.e., icon) and wall painting; among the various technological dictations, Dionysios has included five varnish recipes (see next for details).
The second source in consideration is the digitized (yet hitherto unpublished) manuscript No. 19 (inv. number: 36161) of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Library, which was compiled by Ioannis Zografos (“Ioannis the painter, son of Stergios”) in 1824 [32,33]; at that time, Ioannis lived in the village of “Kakoplevri”, which is located in modern-day Trikala territory (NW Thessaly, Greece) [34]. This particular manuscript shows an overall similar structure with that of Dionysios’ manual, and it embodies distinct technical and iconographical sections too. Part of the technical dictations are practically identical to those of Dionysios; however, the manual in consideration contains several recipes that either deviate substantially, or do not exist in Dionysios’ Hermeneia. For instance, Ioannis Zografos has included more than thirty (!) varnish-related recipes, while Dionysios’ manual contains only five.

2.2. FTIR-ATR Analysis of Selected Post-Byzantine Icons’ Varnishes

For the sake of the critical evaluation of the recipes in consideration, varnish micro-samples were collected from certain post-Byzantine Greek icons and analyzed through attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). In detail, a few milligrams of varnish were removed using surgical scalpels from the surfaces of nine post-Byzantine icons that are dated from the 17th to mid-19th c. (Table 1). Through meticulous study of the icons in consideration, it was confirmed that six of them bear their authentic varnishes (i.e., they remained hitherto uncleaned), two have undergone re-varnishing (therefore bear two successive varnish layers), while a single icon bears a “restoration” varnish (i.e., a varnish applied after cleaning/removal of the authentic one) (Table 1). The raw (i.e., non-pretreated) varnish samples were analyzed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy in attenuated total reflectance geometry (FTIR-ATR). For the latter purpose, a PerkinElmer Spectrum 100 FT-IR spectrometer was used; the employed spectrometer utilizes the Universal ATR accessory, which, through the use of a pressure arm, allows for the optimal contact of samples with the diamond/ZnSe crystal and the acquisition of high-quality spectra. In the case of the samples in consideration, spectra were collected in the range of 4000–380 cm−1 (8–24 scans/spectrum, depending on sample quality).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Dionysios of Fourna Varnish Recipes

The “Hermeneia” text contains only seven recipes that pertain to varnish(ing). Besides, the Dionysios’ varnishes are manufactured using a rather limited number of raw materials and by employing simple processes/steps. First, the text describes the thickening of linseed oil (πεζήρι—peziri) through prolonged exposure to summer sun in an open baking pan, and then the separation of colophony/rosin (πέγουλα—pegula) from pine resin through thermal treatment is dictated (recipes §28 & §29 respectively, [9]; readers are directed to [35] for the key English translation of the “Hermeneia” text); these are the two basic raw materials to be used for varnishes. Indeed, the “fat” varnish described in §30 consists of the two aforementioned materials (100:75—linseed oil:rosin); however, there is also the option to substitute part of the rosin for mastic resin. In case that the outcome (: varnish) is rather thick, it can be thinned out using either spirit of turpentine (νέφτι-nefti) or crude linseed oil (§30, op. cit.). Here we shall note that Hetherington [35] translates “νέφτι” as “naptha”, i.e., a petroleum derivative, yet to the authors’ view this term shall be better translated as “oil of turpentine”, an organic solvent still being traded under the label “νέφτι” in the Greek paint supplies market.
The next recipe (§31) describes the preparation of another “fat” varnish, which is simply made through the thermal treatment of a santalozi resin (σανταλόζι) (probably the solid residue of the sandalwood exudate, i.e., sandalwood resin) plus thickened linseed oil mixture. On the contrary, recipes §32 and §34 dictate the preparation of two “lean” varnishes: the first one is made of sandarac plus rosin dissolved in spirit of turpentine, while the second consists of the same resins dissolved in spirit of wine (ρακή πολλά δυνατή) (op. cit.) (Table 2). Finally, there is also a recipe describing the preparation of a yellow-tinted varnish, to be used for covering white silver leaves for gold-imitation: sandarac resin (σανδράκα) along with aloe are thin-grinded and shifted, then placed into a pot jar over a fire until melted, and finally, thickened linseed oil is added. Note that “σανδράκα” most probably pertains to “sandarac”, i.e. the yellowish resin collected from the ever-green tree of the Cypressaceae (cypress) family Tetraclinis articulata [18].

3.2. Ioannis Zografos Varnish Recipes

On the contrary, Ioannis Zografos’ manual contains significantly more varnish-related recipes. Besides, the latter amount to thirty-six, most of which pertain to paintings; a few recipes deal with wood coatings and varnishes to be used on metallic objects, yet these will not be considered herein (Figure 2). Also note that the detailed description and transcription of the material under consideration is far beyond the scope of this paper, therefore only the most notable points/recipes will be discussed next (the current authors intend to proceed to the critical publication of this particular manuscript).
In contrast to Dionysios’ manual, where the distinction between fat and lean varnish recipes is straightforward, the case of the Ioannis’ manuscript is far more complicated, mainly because the corresponding recipes employ many different materials/compounds, and also because the latter are quite often labeled using obscure terms. For instance, there are three distinct terms (including various alternative spellings for each of them) to denote “linseed oil” (λινέλαιο—lineleo, πεζήρι—peziri, and μπηζηρόλαδον—mpizirolado), and this is also the case for the high alcohol degree solutions that are often used as dilutants (σπίρτο—spirto/spirit, πνεύμα οίνου—spirit of wine, ρακί—raki, ρακή αψιά—harsh raki, ρακή φίνα—fine raki, etc.); in most of the cases, the latter solutions/solvents pertain to high alcohol degree drinks of the “raki/tsipouro” family, which are produced through multiple distillations of grapes and other relevant fruits. Even more variant are the terms used for rosin, as one meets many words beyond “πέγουλα” (which is the only term found in Dionysios’ “Hermeneia”), such as “ρυτσίνη καθαρό—rectified resin”, ”τζαμισάκ—tzamisak”, and “τσαμσακή—tsamsaki”. The plurality of terms used to denote given compounds clearly suggests that Ioannis Zografos had gathered his material from various sources, and this indicates obviously that the accessible technical literature during that times exceeded by far the texts that were available to Dionysios some one hundred years earlier [23].
When it comes to the discrimination between fat and lean varnishes in Zografos’ text, the importance of the term “τρεμεντίνα” (trementina) and the relevant ones emerges. The word obviously derives from the Italian “trementina”, which means turpentine, and it appears that “τρεμεντινα” might have been used in the same (broader) context by Greek craftsmen as well. Besides, it appears that sometimes the various terms were used either interchangeably or with a rather broad sense. For instance, a single recipe appearing on folio 31r states that “santalozi” corresponds to “trementina” which is equal to “dry resin” (“αρετζίνι ξερόν”) (Figure 2). On the contrary, there are other recipes explicitly dictating the employment of Venice Turpeninte (“τριμεντίνα βινέτικη”). Being an oleoresin (namely the crude exudate of pistacia terebinthus, from which the oil of turpentine is extracted through distillation), the varnishes containing this very substance should be designated as intermediate [5].
In this view, Table 2 summarizes the numbers of recipes dealing with different varnish types in the Dionysios and the Zografos manuals, revealing an important information: within a period of circa one hundred years that intervened between the compilation of the two texts, intermediate and lean varnishes had prevailed over the fat ones (Table 2). This trend might well reflect the progression of new materials (e.g., soft resins, turpentine) in the local markets or/and a shift in craftsmen’s taste towards thinner/less viscous varnishes. Besides, from the early 18th c., western European texts on painting were being increasingly available to Greek craftsmen through translations, a characteristic example being Panagiotis Doxaras, who translated several Italian texts [36,37].
It is worth noting that the Ioannis Zografos text contains a detailed description of varnishing, of which there is no parallel in any of the hitherto published Greek post-Byzantine painting manuals. To the authors’ opinion, the significance of the particular content calls for its transcription, being thus the first ever published detailed account on the varnishing methods of the Greek post-Byzantine painters, which offers a unique insight on these very processes. The recipe begins with the description of an oil painting varnishing, and this obviously indicates that the drying oil media were already (i.e., by the early 19th c.) widely used by Greek painters. Although this point might at first sight appear to be of no importance, one shall bear in mind that egg tempera is regarded as the “traditional/proper” painting medium in the context of the rather conservative Greek post-Byzantine religious painting [38].
The recipe in consideration starts in the verso of folio 30 and is entitled “On how you shall varnish an icon”. The original text (transcription & translation) appears below (in italics); inserts of plain text (not italics) within parentheses correspond to explanatory notes that were added by the current authors.
If the icon is painted in oil, first spread on it a layer of walnut oil (the process taking place) under the sun, and (note that) the walnut oil shall be very thin (“απαλόν” in the Greek text). And let it dry, then spread a layer of turpentine spirit, let it also dry, and when it is dry too, spread varnish; yet both the icon and the varnish shall be hot, and when this has dried, (folio 31r) spread (on the icon) again three and four layers (“χέρια”) until it (i.e., the varnished icon) looks like crystal; and you shall use a soft brush, not your hand.
If on the other hand, the icon is painted in egg, first heat it up (by exposing it) to the sun, then mix a bit of trimentina with spirit of turpentine and first spread over the areas where the green—that is verdigris—and the lake and the indigo stand, and when this is well dried spread over it varnish three (to) four times until you find that you like it, that is it looks like clear glass; and always (keep in mind that) when you varnish the icon must be warmed, and when you use a lean varnish (“του ισκίου”) you must not pass your brush over a given area multiple times because the colors (“αι βαφαί”) are mixed.
And if you wonder (“θαυμάζης”) why verdigris, lake, and indigo are first covered by trimentina, (know that this is done) in order to avoid whitening or change (of the colors) and to keep them always soft and sound colors (“τρυφερές και καλές βαφές”).
And you should also know that all the sun varnishes (i.e., the fat ones, those that dry upon exposure to sun) are spread using the palm and the fingers of the hand, (while) the lean (“του ισκίου”) varnish is spread using the brush; yet always the icon must be (first) warmed and then apply three and four layers (of varnish) until you like very much its glassy-like appearance, and this is enough.
In both egg tempera and oil paintings, the described varnishes consist of at least two different materials, applied in multiple successive layers. Of particular interest is the case of egg paintings, where the areas painted in specific pigments are to receive a special pre-treatment before the application of the final varnish. This definitely aims at preventing interaction between these very pigments and the final varnish and reflects empirical knowledge of the solubility of verdigris-type pigments in coniferous resins plus solvent mixtures [39,40]. Note that a relevant dictation appears in the circa 1400 AD Cennino’s painting manual [13], while similar dictations in other Greek manuals were recently brought to light [23].
However, the most notable part of the recipe is the final one, where it is stated that the fat varnishes should be applied by bare hand, whereas the lean ones should be applied by brush. The application of oily varnishes on icons by hand is dictated by Cennini [13], yet it has been considered as a trend from Russia [41], where it is still being (albeit infrequently) practiced by some icon painters. The fact that a relevant dictation appears in a Greek 19th c. painting manual suggests a wide (and persistent) employment of the method in consideration and offers a unique insight into the varnish application methods used by local (Greek) painters.

3.3. ATR-FTIR Analyses of Post-Byzantine Greek Icons’ Varnishes

The results obtained through the FTIR-ATR analysis of varnish samples from the aforementioned nine post-Byzantine Greek icons are rather complex, indicating employment of multiple organic components; in fact, it appears that most of them contain both resinous and oily compounds (Table 1, Figure 3). A close inspection of the high frequency region of the spectra (3800–2700 cm−1, Figure 3 left) reveals the presence of intense methylene (CH2) absorptions at ca. 2920 cm−1 and 2850 cm−1, which are indicative of linseed oil, while the peaks appearing at ca. 2935 cm−1 and 2875 cm−1 pertain to methyl/methylene stretching vibrations in diterpenic resins’ molecules (colophony and sandarac) [16,42]. The mixing of oils with diterpenic resins is also evident upon examination of lower frequency regions (Figure 3 middle), where carbonyl (C=O) absorptions appear simultaneously at ~1695–1715 cm−1 (due to diterpenic resins) and ~1735 cm−1 (linseed oil) [16,42,43]. Interestingly, admixture of triterpenic resins (presumably mastic or dammar) in many of the studied varnishes is suggested by the presence of absorption peaks emerging at ~2955 cm−1 (C-H, appearing as a “shoulder” on the major 2920–2935 cm−1 absorption) and ~1715 cm−1 (C=O) (Figure 3 left, middle). Besides, the FTIR-ATR analyses reveal that in some cases, mixtures of linseed oil with diterpenic and triterpenic resins have been employed (Figure 3 left, middle). These findings are more or less in accordance with the recipes in consideration that often call for the preparation of complex mixtures, as well as with the results of previous analytical studies of post-Byzantine icons’ varnishes that indicated a prevalence of resin plus oil varnishes as well [44,45].
A notable exception is the varnish of a mid-19th c. icon depicting St Ioannis Prodromos (St John the Forerunner) (Figure 3 right). The pertinent spectrum shows predominant carbonyl absorption bands at ca. 1645 cm−1 accompanied by an intense absorption at 1545 cm−1; these correspond to the so-called amide I and amide II vibrations, respectively, and reveal the employment of a protein-based substance [43,45,46,47], presumably an egg white varnish. In addition, intense amide absorption bands accompanied by resin-related ones appear in the spectrum from a late 19th c. icon varnish (Annunciation, Figure 3 middle). Although a glair-based varnish is not documented in the Greek painting manuals under consideration, there are several mentions of the use of beaten glair as a varnish in various European technical texts [3], as well as in some painting manuals compiled by Balkan painters [41]. For instance, Cennino suggests the application of beaten glair as a temporary varnish, to be employed before the final cover of a painting with a fat varnish [13].
However, faint amide I and II absorption bands appear also in a couple of spectra where resin or/and oil absorption peaks predominate, and this seems quite odd, as none of the documented recipes dictates the mixture of pertinent components. Detection of protein in oil/resin varnishes is also mentioned by Lazidou et al. [45], who suggest that proteins might have been diffused from the paint layers. In addition to this possibility, one must bear in mind that icons, being veneration objects, were ordinarily receiving “washing”, “cleaning”, and/or re-varnishing treatments with the purpose of reviving their appearance [3,23,41]. Therefore, a varnish that is nowadays present on an old icon may not correspond (only) to the authentic/initial one, hence the corresponding analytical results must be critically evaluated (see also a relevant remark in [44]). Note that one may overcome some of the pertinent issues through the analysis of sample cross-sections, where the various varnish layers can ideally be analyzed one by one [48].

4. Conclusions

Post-Byzantine painting manuals are a very important source of information on the materials and techniques employed by the corresponding craftsmen, and through their digitization, they are currently becoming increasingly accessible. A study focusing exclusively on the varnish recipes of two manuscripts revealed an interesting shift towards lean and intermediate varnishes during the early 19th c.; this trend possibly reflects the progression of new materials (resins & oleoresins) in the eastern Mediterranean market, and/or the gradual replacement of oily varnishes that presumably took place simultaneously with a dissemination of material from translated western European painting manuals. A unique, rather detailed dictation of varnishing processes was spotted in an early 19th c. manuscript and was herein published for the first time. This particular passage calls for the application of oily varnishes by bare hand, a practice not documented hitherto in any of the known Greek painting manuals. Finally, analytical investigation of several post-Byzantine icons’ varnishes revealed the extensive use of resinous and intermediate varnishes, as well as the employment of a protein-based varnish on a mid-19th c. icon. The latter finding is of importance because the known Greek painting manuals do not mention the employment of protein-based materials for varnishing purposes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.P.M. and K.G.B.; methodology, G.P.M.; software, G.P.M.; validation, G.P.M. and K.G.B.; formal analysis, G.P.M.; investigation, G.P.M.; resources, G.P.M.; data curation, G.P.M.; writing—original draft preparation, G.P.M.; writing—review and editing, K.G.B.; visualization, G.P.M.; supervision, K.G.B.; project administration, G.P.M.; funding acquisition, G.P.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research is co-financed by Greece and the European Union (European Social Fund- ESF) through the Operational Programme “Human Resources Development, Education and Lifelong Learning” in the context of the project “Reinforcement of Postdoctoral Researchers—2nd Cycle” (MIS-5033021), implemented by the State Scholarships Foundation (ΙΚΥ).
Heritage 04 00197 i001

Acknowledgments

Special thanks are due to K. Nasta, the director, and the personnel of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Library for granting permission for publication of painting manuals. In addition, sincere thanks are due to G. Mitrikas (INN, NCSR “Demokritos”) for providing access to an FTIR-ATR analysis system. Finally, special thanks are due to the three anonymous reviewers for their most helpful comments on the first version of this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Feller, R.L.; Stolow, N.; Jones, E.H. On Picture Varnishes and Their Solvents; National Gallery of Art: Washington, DC, USA, 1985. [Google Scholar]
  2. de la Rie, E.R. The influence of varnishes on the appearance of paintings. Stud. Conserv. 1987, 32, 1–13. [Google Scholar]
  3. Caley, T. Aspects of Varnishes and the Cleaning of oil Paintings before 1700. Stud. Conserv. 1990, 35, 70–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Dunkerton, J.; White, R. The discovery and identification of an original varnish on a panel by Carlo Crivelli. Natl. Gallery Tech. Bull. 2000, 21, 70–76. [Google Scholar]
  5. Favre-Félix, M. On the recipe for a varnish used by El Greco. Conserv. Partimónio 2017, 26, 37–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Burrows, T. Medieval Manuscripts and Their (Digital) Afterlives; Boyle, J.E., Burgess, H.J., Eds.; The Routledge Research Companion to Digital Medieval Literature; Routledge: London, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Wakelin, D. A New Age of Photography: ‘DIY Digitization’ in Manuscript Studies. Anglia 2021, 139, 71–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Merrifield, M.P. Original Treatises... on the Art of Painting, in Two Volumes; John Murray: London, UK, 1849. [Google Scholar]
  9. Διονύσιος εκ Φουρνά. Ερμηνεία της Ζωγραφικής Τέχνης [Hermeneia of the art of Painting], preface by A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus (editor), Petersburg. 1900. Available online: https://anemi.lib.uoc.gr/metadata/2/c/a/metadata-141-0000170.tkl (accessed on 26 July 2021).
  10. Papadopoulos-Kerameus, A.; Spanos, K. (Eds.) Διονύσιος εκ Φουρνά. Ερμηνεία της Ζωγραφικής Τέχνης [Hermeneia of the Art of Painting]; Originally Published in Petersburg; ΣΠANOΣ: Athens, Greece, 1997. [Google Scholar]
  11. Theophilus. On Divers Arts, Translated and Commented; Hawthorne, J.G., Smith, C.S., Eds.; Dover: New York, NY, USA, 1979. [Google Scholar]
  12. Clarke, M. Mediaeval Painters’ Materials and Techniques: The Montpellier Liber Diversarum Arcium; Archetype: London, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  13. Cennini, C. Il Libro Dell’ Arte, Translated and Commented; Broecke, L., Ed.; Archetype: London, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  14. Clarke, M. The Art of All Colours; Archetype: London, UK, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  15. Echard, J.-P.; Malecki, V. Oil-Pinaceae Resin Varnish Recipes in 15th–18th-Century Written Sources; Dubois, H., Townsend, J., Nadolny, J., Eyb-Green, S., Kroustallis, S., Neven, S., Eds.; Making and Transforming Art: Technology and Interpretation; Archetype: London, UK, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  16. Azémard, C.; Vieillescazes, C.; Ménager, M. Effect of photodegradation on the identification of natural varnishes by FT-IR spectroscopy. Microchem. J. 2014, 112, 137–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Tirat, S.; Degano, I.; Echard, J.-P.; Lattuati-Derieux, A.; Lluveras-Tenorio, A.; Marie, A.; Serfaty, A.; Le Huerou, J.-Y. Historical linseed oil/colophony varnishes formulations: Study of their molecular composition with micro-chemical chromatographic techniques. Microchem. J. 2016, 126, 200–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Azémard, C.; Ménager, M.; Vieillescazes, C. On the tracks of sandarac, review and chemical analysis. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2017, 24, 27746–27754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Tirat, S.; Echard, J.-P.; Lattuati-Derieux, A.; Le Huerou, J.-Y.; Serfaty, A. Reconstructing historical recipes of linseed oil/colophony varnishes: Influence of preparation processes on application properties. J. Cult. Herit. 2017, 7S, S34–S43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Χατζιδάκις, Μ. Ἐκ τῶν Ἐλπίου τοῦ Ρωμαίου [Elpius the Roman: Concerning Bodily Characteristics] Ἐπετηρὶς Ἑταιρείας Βυζαντινῶν Σπουδῶν. Yearb. Byz. Stud. Soc. 1938, 14, 393–414. [Google Scholar]
  21. Parpulov, G.R.; Dolgikh, I.V.; Cowe, P. A Byzantine Text on the Technique of Icon Painting. Dumbart. Oak Pap. 2010, 64, 201–212. [Google Scholar]
  22. Kakavas, G. Dionysius of Fourna (c. 1670–c.1745). Artistic Creation and Literary Description; Alexandros Press: Leiden, The Netherlands, 2008. [Google Scholar]
  23. Mastrotheodoros, G.P.; Beltsios, K.G. Sound practice and practical conservation recipes as described in Greek post-byzantine painters’ manuals. Stud. Conserv. 2019, 64, 42–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Βαφειάδης, Κ. Εγχειρίδια ζωγραφικής στο βυζάντιο. H μαρτυρία του κώδικος Ι.Μ. Παντελεήμονος 259 [Painting Manuals in Byzantium. The Testimony of the Codex 259 of the Panteleimonos Monastery]; Andy’s Publishers: Athens, Greece, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  25. Βαρσαμίδης, A. Ερμηνεία των αγίων εικόνων [Hermeneia of the Holy Icons]; Σταμούλης Editions; EKΔOTIKOΣ OIKOΣ ANT ΣTAMOΥΛH: Thessaloniki, Greece, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  26. Van Den Berg, K.J.; Boon, J.J.; Pastorova, I.; Spetter, L.F.M. Mass spectrometric methodology for the analysis of highly oxidized diterpenoid acids in Old Master paintings. J. Mass Spectrom. 2000, 35, 512–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Colombini, M.P.; Andreotti, A.; Bonaduce, I.; Modugno, F.; Ribechini, E. Analytical strategies for characterizing organic paint media using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Acc. Chem. Res. 2010, 43, 715–727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Sotiropoulou, S.; Daniilia, S. Material aspects of icons. A review on physicochemical studies of Greek icons. Acc. Chem. Res. 2010, 43, 877–887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Mastrotheodoros, G.P.; Beltsios, K.G.; Bassiakos, Y. On the red and yellow pigments of post-byzantine Greek icons. Archaeometry 2021, 63, 753–778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Osete-Cortina, L.; Doménech-Carbó, M.T. Study on the effects of chemical cleaning on pinaceae resin-based varnishes from panel and canvas painting using pyrolisi-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2006, 76, 144–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Townsend, J.; Boon, J. Research and Instrumental Analysis in the Materials of Easel Paintings; Stoner, J.H., Rushfield, R., Eds.; The Conservation of Easel Paintings; Routledge: London, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  32. Ζωγράφος, Ι. Ερμηνεία της Ζωγραφικής Επιστήμης [Hermeneia of the Craft of Painting], Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Library, Codex No19, 1824. Available online: http://digital.lib.auth.gr/record/79851/?ln=en (accessed on 12 August 2021).
  33. Πολίτης, Λ. Κατάλογος χειρογράφων του Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλονίκης [Catalogue of the Thessaloniki University Manuscripts]; Sotiroudi, P., Sakellaridou-Sotiroudi, A., Eds.; Aristotle University of Thessalokini: Thessaloniki, Greece, 1991. [Google Scholar]
  34. Δρακοπούλου, Ε. Έλληνες ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450–1850) [Greek Painters after the Fall (1450–1850)]; Institute of Neohellenic Studies, National Hellenic Research Foundation: Athens, Greece, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  35. Dionysios of Fourna. The ‘Painter’s Manual’ of Dionysius of Fourna: An English Translation [from the Greek] with Commentary of cod. gr. 708 in the Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library, Leningrad; Hetherington, P., Ed.; Oakwood: London, UK, 1996. [Google Scholar]
  36. Δοξαράς, Π. Περί Ζωγραφίας [On Painting]; Lambrou, S.P., Ed.; Ktenas & Oikonomou Editions: Athens, Greece, 1871. [Google Scholar]
  37. Παναγιώτου, Κ.Ι. Λεονάρντο ντα Βίντσι, Λέον Μπαττίστα Aλμπέρτι, Aντρέα Πότσο: διά την ζωγραφίαν. Oι Πρώτες Μεταφράσεις Κειμένων Τέχνης από τον Παναγιώτη Δοξαρά, [Leonard da Vinci, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Pozzo: On Painting. The First Translations of Art Texts by Panagiotis Doxaras]; University of Crete Press: Crete, Greece, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  38. Κόντογλου, Φ. Έκφρασις [Ekphrasis], 4th ed.; Papademetriou Editions: Athens, Greece, 1993. [Google Scholar]
  39. Kühn, H. Verdigris and Copper Resinate. In Artist’s Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics; Roy, A., Ed.; National Gallery of Art: Washington, DC, USA, 1993; pp. 131–158. [Google Scholar]
  40. Scott, D.A. Copper and Bronze in Art: Corrosion, Colorants, Conservation; Getty Publications: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  41. Bentchev, I. The Varnished Icon. In Icon Conservation in Europe; Jolkkonen, N., Martiskainen, A., Martiskainen, P., Nikkanen, H., Eds.; The Valamo Art Conservation Institute: Uusi-Valamo, Finland, 1999; pp. 64–88. [Google Scholar]
  42. Daher, C.; Pimenta, V.; Bellot-Gurlet, L. Towards a non-invasive quantitative analysis of the organic components in museum objects varnishes by vibrational spectroscopies: Methodological approach. Talanta 2014, 129, 336–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  43. Derrick, M.R.; Stulik, D.; Landry, J.M. Infrared Spectroscopy in Conservation Science; The Getty Conservation Institute: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
  44. Vieillescazes, C.; Archier, P.; Pistre, M.S. Study of post-byzantine icon varnishes by chromatographic and spectroscopic methods. Stud. Conserv. 2005, 50, 37–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Lazidou, D.; Lampakis, D.; Karapanagiotis, I.; Panayiotou, C. Investigation of the cross-section stratifications of icons using micro-Raman and micro-Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Appl. Specroscopy 2018, 72, 1258–1271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Mannino, M.R.; Orecchio, S.; Gennaro, G. Microanalytical method for studying paintings by use of fluorescence spectroscopy combined with principal component analysis. Microchem. J. 2013, 110, 407–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Robinet, L.; Heu-Thao, S.; Radepont, M.; Bonnot-Diconne, C. Non-invasive analysis of gilt leather gold varnish and protective layer by infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy. Vib. Spectrosc. 2020, 110, 103133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Daher, C.; Drieu, L.; Bellot-Gurlet, L.; Percot, A.; Paris, C.; Le Hô, A.-S. Combined approach of FT-Raman, SERS and IR micro-ATR spectroscopies to enlighten ancient technologies of painted and varnished works of art. J. Raman Spectrosc. 2014, 45, 1207–1214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Heritage 04 00197 g001 550
Figure 1. (Left): the title page of the 1909 Papadopoulos–Kerameus’ critical edition of the “Hermeneia”; image non-subject to copyright. (Right): the title leaf of the 1824 AD Ioannis Zografos’ painting manual. Reproduced by permission of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki library.
Figure 1. (Left): the title page of the 1909 Papadopoulos–Kerameus’ critical edition of the “Hermeneia”; image non-subject to copyright. (Right): the title leaf of the 1824 AD Ioannis Zografos’ painting manual. Reproduced by permission of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki library.
Heritage 04 00197 g001
Heritage 04 00197 g002 550
Figure 2. A detail from a varnish recipe; Ioannis Zografos’ painting manual (1824), f31r (33). Note the remark (in greyish) that is written next to the recipe title (red-lettered) and states “το πλέον εκλεκτότερον” (i.e., “the most fine”). Reproduced by permission of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki library.
Figure 2. A detail from a varnish recipe; Ioannis Zografos’ painting manual (1824), f31r (33). Note the remark (in greyish) that is written next to the recipe title (red-lettered) and states “το πλέον εκλεκτότερον” (i.e., “the most fine”). Reproduced by permission of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki library.
Heritage 04 00197 g002
Heritage 04 00197 g003 550
Figure 3. (Left): high frequency region of ATR-FTIR spectra obtained through the analysis of varnish samples from post-Byzantine icons. (Middle): same spectra, mid-frequency region. (Right): mid-19th c. icon of St Ioannis Prodromos.
Figure 3. (Left): high frequency region of ATR-FTIR spectra obtained through the analysis of varnish samples from post-Byzantine icons. (Middle): same spectra, mid-frequency region. (Right): mid-19th c. icon of St Ioannis Prodromos.
Heritage 04 00197 g003
Table
Table 1. The sampled icons.
Table 1. The sampled icons.
IconDateProvenanceNotesVarnish Components
(FTIR-ATR)
Transfiguration17th c.UnidentifiedTwo varnish layers preserved: a first/early and a second/latter intervention (samples 1 & 2)Oil, resin (sample 1)
Oil, resin, protein (sample 2)
St NikanorasLate 18th c.Northern Greece (?)Two successive varnish layers; sample collected from the second (latter) oneResin, minor oil
TriptychEarly 19th c.Northern Greece (?)Old “restoration” varnishResin, minor oil, protein
St AnnaMid-19th c.UnidentifiedAuthentic varnish/unrestored itemResin, protein
Jesus ChristMid-19th c.Evia Island (central Greece)Authentic varnish/unrestored itemResin (+minor oil?)
St John the ForerunnerMid-19th c.Evia IslandAuthentic varnish/unrestored itemProtein (+minor oil?)
Painted offering boxLate 19th c.Evia IslandAuthentic varnish/unrestored itemResin, oil
Annunciation1884 ADTinos Island (Cyclades)Authentic varnish/unrestored itemProtein, resin
St NikolaosLate 19th c.Northern GreeceAuthentic varnish/unrestored itemResin (+protein?)
Table
Table 2. Recipes per varnish type in the Dionysios of Fourna and Ioannis Zografos manuals and a list of the corresponding materials mentioned in the texts.
Table 2. Recipes per varnish type in the Dionysios of Fourna and Ioannis Zografos manuals and a list of the corresponding materials mentioned in the texts.
AuthorshipDateNumber of Recipes/Varnish Type
FatLeanIntermediateTinted
Dionysios of Fournaca. 1730 AD22-1
Ioannis Zografos1824 AD911113
Employed Materials
AuthorSolvent(s)Oil(s)Resin(s)Oleoresin(s)Pigment(s)/Dye(s)Other
Dionysios of Fourna
(~1730 AD)		turpentine spirit
wine spirit		linseed oil
(raw/thickened)		rosin
mastic
sandarac		 aloe
Ioannis Zografos
(1824 AD)		turpentine spirit
wine spirit		linseed oil
(raw/thickened)
linseed oil
(+siccatives)		rosin
mastic
sandarac
copal
shellac
amber
incense		Venice turpentine
turpentine		aloe
ground glass
“gotagoma” (gomma gutte)
litharge
lead oxide (?)
umber		onion leaves
bread
camphoralum
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Mastrotheodoros, G.P.; Beltsios, K.G. Original Varnish Recipes in Post-Byzantine Painting Manuals. Heritage 2021, 4, 3572-3582. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage4040197

AMA Style

Mastrotheodoros GP, Beltsios KG. Original Varnish Recipes in Post-Byzantine Painting Manuals. Heritage. 2021; 4(4):3572-3582. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage4040197

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mastrotheodoros, Georgios P., and Konstantinos G. Beltsios. 2021. "Original Varnish Recipes in Post-Byzantine Painting Manuals" Heritage 4, no. 4: 3572-3582. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage4040197

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop