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Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 November 2022) | Viewed by 24046

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Prof. Dr. Jin Seo Park

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Guest Editor

Department of Anatomy, Dongguk University School of Medicine, 87 Dongdae-ro, Gyeongju 38066, Republic of Korea
Interests: cross-sectional anatomy; three-dimensional imaging; computer-assisted image processing; imaging phantoms; visible human projects

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In anatomy, medical images have become particularly important materials. For basic medical education, each structure in the images is converted into three-dimensional images for virtual dissection. For clinical education, each structure in the images is classified by normal and abnormal shapes. For research, each structure in the images is analyzed in length, volume, and weight.

To convert, classify, and analyze medical images, it is necessary to develop image processing, which is a technique of inputting two-dimensional or three-dimensional images into a computer and then enhancing or analyzing the imagery into a form. Through image processing, medical images will be more useful to the education and study of human anatomy.

In this Special Issue, we invite submissions exploring state-of-the-art research and recent advances in image processing of all medical images, including CT and MRI in anatomy. Based on the medical images, image processing and application studies are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Jin Seo Park
Guest Editor

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Keywords

cross-sectional anatomy
magnetic resonance imaging
diffusion tensor imaging
three-dimensional imaging
visible human project
computer-assisted image processing
imaging phantoms

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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8 pages, 3449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is the Fovea Ulnaris Truly Isometric during Forearm Rotation?—An In Vivo Retrospective Analysis Using Superimpositions of Three-Dimensional Reconstructions

by Seung-Han Shin, Joonyoung Park, Dai-Soon Kwak and Yang-Guk Chung

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(6), 3108; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12063108 - 18 Mar 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1246

Abstract

The fovea ulnaris is considered to be the center of rotation on the ulnar head during forearm rotation. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the fovea ulnaris is truly isometric during forearm rotation in vivo. The three-dimensional reconstruction models of 21 wrist computed tomography images taken in supination and pronation were investigated. The models were superimposed so that the two ulnar heads were in the same position. Numerous points were set on the surface of the ulnar head with a mean distance of 0.2 mm between the nearest two points. Then, the models were superimposed with respect to the radius, and the distance between the same points on the ulnar head in pronation and supination (D_FR) was measured. The rotation center was defined as the point with the shortest D_FR. The isometric point was defined as a rotation center with a D_FR of less than 0.2 mm. An isometric point was found in three cases and not in 18 cases. The distance the rotation center moved during forearm rotation (D_FR of the rotation center) ranged from 0.1 mm to 2.4 mm. The position of the rotation center in the radioulnar direction was significantly correlated with the translation of the ulnar head and the amount of forearm rotation. The rotation center was located more ulnarly when the translation of the ulnar head or the amount of forearm rotation was greater. The isometricity of the foveal insertion of the TFCC during forearm rotation may not be consistent in vivo. The center of rotation on the ulnar head during forearm rotation appears to shift ulnarly with increasing translation of the ulnar head or forearm rotation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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11 pages, 1059 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Ultrasonography, Microcomputed Tomography, and Macroscopic Preparation in an Anatomical Study of the Thoracic Limb of the Golden-Headed Lion Tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas)

by Maciej Zdun, Katarzyna Szczepańska, Arkadiusz Grzeczka, Hieronim Frąckowiak, Bartosz Gapiński and Michał Wieczorowski

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1031; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12031031 - 19 Jan 2022

Viewed by 1655

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the normal anatomy of the forearm of the golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) using microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) and ultrasonography (US) and then compare the results with the results of a gross anatomy dissection of the forearm. The results of the US examination of the musculoskeletal system of the tamarin forearm were not satisfactory. US imaging enabled observation of the shape of the soft tissue and the size of muscle groups; however, we distinguished more muscles by traditional methods. In addition, in the dissection study, the assessment of the muscles was easier. Examination of the forearm bones using micro-CT provided a complete picture of the bones in this part of the body and was less time-consuming than traditional methods. Imaging allows the anatomy to be represented as a 3D image. However, some methods are not accurate; as in our study, US did not allow a complete assessment of the forearm musculature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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15 pages, 5459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real Color Sectioned Images and Correspondence with Ultrasound Images of the Palmar Wrist

by Seul Ki Kim, Mi-Sun Hur and Jin Seo Park

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(1), 299; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12010299 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1440

Abstract

The aim of this study was to identify sequential changes in the actual sites and shapes of wrist structures on the high-resolution sectioned images and to compare these with those on ultrasound (US) images. These images of the wrist may yield guidelines for diagnosing various pathological lesions in the wrist. In the sectioned images of a whole cadaver body, and the images including the wrist were selected, and part of the hand was cropped. A wrist of one healthy Korean subject was scanned by ultrasonography to obtain US images of the wrist. Wrist structures were identified and labeled in detail on the sectioned images and the corresponding US images. Serial changes of the sites and shapes of the wrist structures mainly occurred in the bones, median nerve, ulnar artery, ulnar nerve, and the flexor pollicis longus tendon, along with thickening of the thenar and hypothenar muscles. The present results could provide a new guide for anatomy mapping, diagnosing, and detecting various lesions of the wrist. They can also be useful and effective for educational purposes related to interpreting US images. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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11 pages, 2026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Left Atrial Volume Correlates with Mitral Annulus Size: An MDCT Study

by Gabriel Cismaru, Iulia Valean, Mihnea Cantemir Zirbo, Alexandru Tirpe, Andrei Cismaru, Radu Rosu, Mihai Puiu, Lucian Muresan, Gabriel Gusetu, Ioan-Alxandru Minciuna, Cristian Marius Florea, Raluca Tomoaia, Dumitru Zdrenghea and Dana Pop

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(23), 11329; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app112311329 - 30 Nov 2021

Viewed by 1642

Abstract

Aim: Although the association between left ventricular dilation and mitral annulus dilation is well understood, the potential variation in the size of the mitral annulus during dilation of the left atrium is currently unknown. In order to investigate the link between the two variables, we used multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) and looked at patients who had a dilated left atrium, assessing if the mitral valve also dilates. Materials and Methods: The study included 107 patients with paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation, in whom catheter ablation was performed using pulmonary vein isolation ± atrial substrate modification. Eighty patients were male (74.8%), with a mean age of 55.8 years (±9.87 with a minimum age of 26 years and a maximum age of 79 years), of which 57.1% had paroxysmal AF and the rest had persistent fibrillation. All the patients underwent multiple-detector CT (MDCT) with contrast medium before the ablation. CT images were integrated into the three-dimensional mapping system CARTO 3, after which the diameters of the mitral annulus, area, and circumference were measured. Left atrial size was evaluated by measuring the diameters, area, and volume. Results: The left atrial area was 247 ± 65.7 cm2 and the left atrial volume was 139 ± 56.3 mL. The transverse mitral annulus (MA) was 29.9 ± 5.3 mm and the longitudinal diameter was 41.9 ± 7.6 mm. The MA circumference and area were 15.0 ± 3.5 cm and 14.2 ± 4.6 cm², respectively. The following statistically significant correlation was identified between the dimensions of the mitral annulus and the diameters of the left atrium: the transverse mitral annulus correlates with the antero-posterior (AP) LA diameter (R = 0.594, p < 0.01) and the longitudinal MA diameter correlates with the latero-lateral (LL) LA diameter (R = 0.576, p < 0.01). Furthermore, the MA area correlates with the LA volume (R = 0.639, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The volume of the left atrium correlates with the area of the mitral annulus. In patients with paroxysmal and persistent AF, an increase in left atrial dimensions is further associated with an increase in mitral valve dimensions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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18 pages, 4556 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparison of Manual versus Semi-Automatic Segmentations of the Stenotic Carotid Artery Bifurcation

by Benjamin Csippa, Zsuzsanna Mihály, Zsófia Czinege, Márton Bence Németh, Gábor Halász, György Paál and Péter Sótonyi, Jr.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(17), 8192; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11178192 - 03 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1946

Abstract

Background: The image reconstruction of stenotic carotid bifurcation can be managed by medical practitioners and non-medical investigators with semi-automatic or manual segmentation. The outcome of blood flow simulations may vary because of a single mean voxel difference along the examined section, possibly more in the stenotic lesions, which can lead to conflicting results regarding other research findings. The aim of our project is computational geometry reconstruction for blood flow simulations to make it suitable for comparison with plaque image analysis performed by commercially available software. In this paper, a comparison is made between the manual and semi-automatic segmentations performed by non-medical and medical investigators, respectively. Methods: 30 patients were classified into three homogeneous groups. Our group classification was based on the following parameters: plaque calcification score, thickness, extent, remodeling and plaque localization. The images in the first group were segmented individually by medical practitioners and experienced non-medical investigators, the second group was segmented collectively, and the last group was segmented individually again. Cross-sections along the centerline were extracted, then geometrical and statistical analyses were performed. Exploratory flow simulations were carried out on two patients to showcase the effect of geometrical differences on the hemodynamic flow field. Results: The largest centerline-averaged voxel difference between the medical and non-medical investigators occurred in the first group with a positive difference of 1.16 voxels. In the second and third groups, the average voxel difference decreased to 0.65 and 0.75, respectively. The example case from the first group showed that the difference in maximum wall shear stress in the middle of the stenosis is 30% with an average voxel difference of 1.73. Meanwhile, it can decrease to 4% when the average voxel difference is 0.64 for the example case from the third group. Conclusions: A collective review of the medical images should preceded the manual segmentations before applying them in computational simulations in order to ensure a proper comparison with plaque image analysis. Especially complex pathology such as calcifications should be segmented under medical supervision or after specific training. Non-significant differences in the segmentation can lead to significant differences in the computed flow field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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8 pages, 902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applicability of Semi-Quantitative Evaluation of the Intercondylar Notch

by Lena Hirtler, Katrin Tschematschar, Franz Kainberger and Sebastian Röhrich

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(13), 5921; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11135921 - 25 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1748

Abstract

The intercondylar notch (IN) can differ in morphology and size, influencing the contained ligaments. For a better understanding of the influence of the IN’s anatomy on knee pathologies, a classification of different shapes was proposed. However, a detailed evaluation of the reliability of these classifications is lacking thus far. In coronal knee MRIs of 330 patients, the IN width was measured and three shapes were calculated to generate objective control results. Notch shapes were classified by two blinded investigators, first without and then with visual assistance to guide the shape classification. The distribution of the three different shapes was as follows: A-shape: n = 43, 13.0%; inverse U-shape: n = 100, 30.3%; Ω-shape: n = 183, 56.7%. The semi-quantitative evaluation distribution was as follows: A-shape: n = 44, 13.3%; inverse U-shape: n = 37, 11.2%; Ω-shape: n = 249, 75%; there was fair (κ = 0.35) agreement compared to that of the control results. The assisted semi-quantitative evaluation distribution was as follows: A-shape: n = 44, 13.3%; inverse U-shape: 103, 31.2%; Ω-shape: n = 183, 55.3%; there was very good (κ = 0.92) agreement compared to that of the control results. In the shape evaluation of the IN, rigid guidelines and visual assistance must be used to ensure reliability. The utilization of visual assistance led to higher inter- and intra-rater agreements in the semi-quantitatively evaluation of the IN shape when compared to those in the classification without visual assistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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8 pages, 2613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Optic Strut—CBCT Pneumatization Pattern and Prevalence

by Casian Teodor Sicoe, Cătălina Bichir and Mugurel Constantin Rusu

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(13), 5797; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11135797 - 22 Jun 2021

Viewed by 3969

Abstract

(1) Background: The optic strut (OS) is a critical landmark for clinoid and paraclinoid surgical interventions. To our knowledge, the current literature only mentioned the OS as a possibility for a lesser sphenoidal wing (LSW) pneumatization path, without a proper study of the pneumatization patterns and prevalence within this structure. Thus, our aim was to fill in the missing information. (2) Methods: A retrospective study on 80 cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) files was conducted to assess the prevalence and the origins of pneumatization within the OS. (3) Results: The pneumatization patterns of the OS were: 56.25% from the sphenoid sinus, 1.25% from the posterior ethmoid air cells (PEAC), and 10% from Onodi cells (ONC). Simultaneous pneumatization of unique origin within the lesser sphenoidal wing (LSW) was found in 26.25% from the sphenoid sinus, 1.25% from PEAC, and 5% from ONC. Communication between both LSW roots through pneumatization was found in 6.25% of the files. (4) Conclusions: A careful radiological examination should precede clinical diagnosis and surgical interventions in the paraclinoid area to evaluate postoperative surgical risks and possible diffusion patterns for infection. Additionally, pneumatization within the OS alters its morphological features and thus, its utility as a landmark. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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10 pages, 21917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real Color Model of a Cadaver for Deep Brain Stimulation of the Subthalamic Nucleus

by Chung-Yoh Kim, Jin-Seo Park and Beom-Sun Chung

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 4999; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11114999 - 28 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2187

Abstract

When performing deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus, practitioners should interpret the magnetic resonance images (MRI) correctly so they can place the DBS electrode accurately at the target without damaging the other structures. The aim of this study is to provide a real color volume model of a cadaver head that would help medical students and practitioners to better understand the sectional anatomy of DBS surgery. Sectioned images of a cadaver head were reconstructed into a real color volume model with a voxel size of 0.5 mm × 0.5 mm × 0.5 mm. According to preoperative MRIs and postoperative computed tomographys (CT) of 31 patients, a virtual DBS electrode was rendered on the volume model of a cadaver. The volume model was sectioned at the classical and oblique planes to produce real color images. In addition, segmented images of a cadaver head were formed into volume models. On the classical and oblique planes, the anatomical structures around the course of the DBS electrode were identified. The entry point, waypoint, target point, and nearby structures where the DBS electrode could be misplaced were also elucidated. The oblique planes could be understood concretely by comparing the volume model of the sectioned images with that of the segmented images. The real color and high resolution of the volume model enabled observations of minute structures even on the oblique planes. The volume models can be downloaded by users to be correlated with other patients’ data for grasping the anatomical orientation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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14 pages, 13766 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Posture-Transformed Monkey Phantoms Developed from a Visible Monkey

by Chung Yoh Kim, Ae-Kyoung Lee, Hyung-Do Choi and Jin Seo Park

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(10), 4430; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11104430 - 13 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3303

Abstract

A monkey phantom is of significant value for electromagnetic radiation (EMR) dosimetry simulations. Furthermore, phantoms in various postures are needed because living beings are exposed to EMR in various postures during their daily routine. In this study, we attempted to produce monkey phantoms based on three daily postures of a rhesus monkey. From our Visible Monkey project, we selected surface models with 177 monkey structures. In the surface models, 52 virtual joints were created to allow for changes from the anatomical position to quadrupedal and sitting positions using commercial software. The surface models of the three positions were converted into monkey voxel phantoms. These phantoms were arranged in three positions, and the number of voxels and mass of each structure were analyzed. The phantoms in anatomical, quadrupedal, and sitting positions have a total of 5,054,022, 5,174,453, and 4,803,886 voxels, respectively. The mass of 177 structures in three positions were also calculated based on the number of voxels. By comparing the monkey phantom with the phantom of a female human, we confirmed thicker skin, less fat, heavier muscle, and a lighter skeleton in monkeys than those in humans. Through posture-transformed monkey phantoms, more precise EMR simulations could be possible. The ultimate purpose of this study is to determine the effects of EMR on humans. For this purpose, we will create posture-transformed human phantoms in a following study using the techniques employed herein and the human phantoms from our previous study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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Review

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7 pages, 2995 KiB

Open AccessReview

Anomalous Origin of the Right Vertebral Artery

by Kohei Tokuyama, Hiro Kiyosue, Hiroshi Baba and Yoshiki Asayama

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(17), 8171; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11178171 - 03 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3244

Abstract

An anomalous origin of the right vertebral artery (VA) is a rare anomaly that is much rarer than that of the left VA. It can be divided into a few patterns, including aortic origin, right carotid or brachiocephalic arterial origin, and duplicated origin. In embryological development, the VA is made up of a longitudinal anastomosis between cervical segments. The mechanism of the anomalous origin of the right VA can be explained by the persistence of the cervical segmental artery and the regression point of the 4th right aortic arch. Although the anomaly is usually found incidentally on imaging modalities, it can be a potential cause of complication during surgical and interventional procedures. However, there are a lot of reports about the radiomics of the anomaly. Therefore, we discuss the potential relationship between the anomalous origin of the right VA and radiomics. As the take-home message, understanding several patterns of anomalous origin of the right VA with their embryology and imaging findings is important for surgical and endovascular interventions to avoid intraprocedural complications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Image Processing in Anatomy)

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