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Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People

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A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Biodiversity Conservation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 October 2022) | Viewed by 27965

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Michelle Henley

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Guest Editor

1. Applied Behavioural Ecology and Ecosystem Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Private Bag X5, Florida 1710, South Africa
2. Elephants Alive, P.O. Box 960, Hoedspruit 1380, South Africa
Interests: ecology; human-elephant conflict; elephant behaviour
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to announce a forthcoming Special Issue of Diversity, focussing on existing human-elephant conflict (HEC), considering how we can work toward human–elephant coexistence by sharing research ideas and plans both within the African and Asian context.

African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants are both considered keystone species within their environments, as well as significant tourist attractions. However, elephants have undergone dramatic population size reductions of over 50% within the past three generations, being listed as endangered according to the IUCN Red Data List, with some species listed as critically endangered. Land conversion, because of growing human populations, has increasingly fragmented both the African and Asian elephant populations, decreasing the space available to elephants and the connectivity between Protected Areas (PAs). This fragmentation has led to increased levels of HEC, ranging from mild forms of conflict over elephant impact on their natural environment to more severe forms where both human and elephant lives have been lost.

The responsibility of managing HEC where people and elephants share the landscape within PAs is placed on reserve managers. Outside of PAs, governments are often tasked with ensuring human safety, frequently in poverty-stricken regions where elephants and people are in direct competition for limited resources. Research into HEC has thus been fundamental for establishing management solutions. Research topics within this field have varied from, among others, factors driving HEC, the socio-economic repercussions of HEC, the formation of policies around HEC, the philosophy around HEC, as well as strategies aimed at decreasing HEC and promoting coexistence. As research and mitigation strategies within the HEC field are continually evolving, the importance of sharing research results and management implications, both on intra- and intercontinental levels, is imperative for the long-term conservation of African and Asian elephants.

This Special Issue of Diversity provides an opportunity to combine and synthesize global developments concerning HEC research across the African and Asian continents. We kindly invite you to submit a manuscript, focused on any of the above topics, as well as study case scenarios and reviews within the broad topic. If you are interested in this opportunity or have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us.

Dr. Michelle Henley
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Diversity is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

human–elephant conflict
human–elephant co-existence
elephant mitigation strategies
elephant corridors
community engagement
collaring elephants
crop raiding
tracking technology
transfrontier conservation
land-use planning

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

22 pages, 2537 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Phased Approach to Increase Human Tolerance in Elephant Corridors to Link Protected Areas in Southern Mozambique

by Michelle D. Henley, Robin M. Cook, Anka Bedetti, Jessica Wilmot, Adine Roode, Carlos L. Pereira, João Almeida and António Alverca

Diversity 2023, 15(1), 85; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/d15010085 - 09 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3938

Abstract

Pathfinding elephants are moving through human dominated landscapes, often across international boundaries, thereby playing a vital role in connecting protected areas. Their movements are a call to action to not only understand their spatial requirements but to urgently work towards innovative ways to make people’s livelihoods compatible with conservation outcomes so that coexistence and connected landscapes can prevail. We discuss the first three phases of a long-term strategy to conserve elephant corridors whilst incorporating the socio-economic needs of the people that share the landscape with them. We present a comprehensive satellite-tracking history of elephants across two transfrontier conservation areas (TFCA), represented by Great Limpopo- and Lubombo TFCAs and involving four countries (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Eswatini) to flag where linking corridors exist. We use innovative cafeteria-style experiments to understand which elephant-unpalatable plants would offer lucrative alternative income streams to farmers living in human–elephant-conflict hotspots. The most suitable unpalatable plants are chosen based not only on whether they are unpalatable to elephants, but also on their life history traits and growth prerequisites. We consider a combination of potential economic values (food, essential oil, medicinal and bee fodder value) to ensure that selected plants would accommodate changing economic markets. Lastly, we highlight the importance of combining food security measures with ensuring people’s safety by means of deploying rapid-response units. By implementing these three phases as part of a longer-term strategy, we draw closer to ensuring the protection of bioregions to achieve biodiversity objectives at a landscape scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People)

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28 pages, 2763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Routes to Coexistence: Developing and Testing a Human–Elephant Conflict-Management Framework for African Elephant-Range Countries

by Eva M. Gross, Joana G. Pereira, Tadeyo Shaba, Samuel Bilério, Brighton Kumchedwa and Stephanie Lienenlüke

Diversity 2022, 14(7), 525; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/d14070525 - 29 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4333

Abstract

Creating a future for elephants and people is a highly complex and dynamic challenge, involving social, behavioral, and ecological dimensions as well as multiple actors with various interests. To foster learning from human–elephant conflict (HEC) management projects and share best practices, a study was conducted to review the management of conflicts between elephants and humans in 12 African countries by qualitative expert interviews. Based on this information, a HEC management framework was developed in a two-tiered process. In the first phase, the theory of the framework was developed. In a second phase, the theoretical framework was validated and adjusted through stakeholder participation in two southern African projects (in Mozambique and Malawi). This holistic approach considers environmental as well as social, political, cultural, and economic factors directly or indirectly affecting interactions between people and wildlife. The framework integrates six interlinked strategies to guide managers and conservation practitioners to address HWC drivers and mitigate their impact. A legal environment and spatial planning form the basis of the framework. Social strategies, including meaningful stakeholder engagement and design of appropriate institutional structures and processes are considered the heart of the framework. Technical and financial strategies represent its arms and hands. At the top, monitoring steers all processes, provides feedback for adjustment, and informs decisions. The integration and coordination of these six strategies has great potential as a guiding route to human–wildlife coexistence in Africa and elsewhere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People)

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19 pages, 5970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Socio-Ecological Approach to Understanding How Land Use Challenges Human-Elephant Coexistence in Northern Tanzania

by John Erasto Sanare, Davide Valli, Cecilia Leweri, Gregory Glatzer, Vicki Fishlock and Anna Christina Treydte

Diversity 2022, 14(7), 513; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/d14070513 - 24 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3028

Abstract

A globally rapid land use/land cover change (LULC) in human-transformed landscapes alters the interface of human-wildlife interactions due to shifting socio-ecological and environmental pressures. Understanding these shifts is crucial for mitigating repeated negative interactions that escalate conflict states between people and wildlife. This study aimed to understand LULC changes over 30 years (1989–2019), with more recent spatio-temporal patterns of high pressure at the human-elephant interface, and potentially underlying environmental and human-driven factors that affect elephant movement patterns. We analyzed a dataset of 923 human-elephant conflict occurrences, mainly crop foraging incidents, in the Enduimet Wildlife Management Area (EWMA) between the years 2016 and 2020 and combined these data with LULC for year 2019 to understand potential drivers of conflict and assess how agricultural land and settlement have increased over time. We further used GPS datasets of elephants collared between 2019 to 2020 to understand elephant movement patterns in changing land use types. Landsat image analysis revealed that 41% of the area had been converted into farmlands and settlements within the last three decades, which creates elephant-intolerant habitats and the potential to increase pressure at the human-elephant interface. Collared elephants using EWMA moved through all land use types and did not avoid settlements, although they moved through these at higher speeds, reflecting perception of risk. Elephants travelled slightly more slowly in farmland, likely reflecting the availability of foraging opportunities. Our analysis shows that human-induced LULC changes and the encroachment into elephant habitats have resulted in spatially and temporally predictable increases in HEC in EWMA, driven by the proximity of farmlands and protected areas (PAs), so that incompatible land uses are the principal drivers of damage to human livelihoods and increased risks to Tanzanian (and Kenyan) natural capital. Communities in Enduimet urgently need support to increase the effective distance between their farming activities and the PAs. Village-level crop protection and small-scale land-use planning around PAs are important first steps to halt an escalating conflict situation but need to be supported with longer-range strategies that separate incompatible land-use types and encourage the cultivation of alternative crops and livelihood diversification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People)

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15 pages, 4825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“Smelly” Elephant Repellent: Assessing the Efficacy of a Novel Olfactory Approach to Mitigating Elephant Crop Raiding in Uganda and Kenya

by Lydia N. Tiller, Ernest Oniba, Godfrey Opira, Ewan J. Brennan, Lucy E. King, Victor Ndombi, Derick Wanjala and Marion R. Robertson

Diversity 2022, 14(7), 509; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/d14070509 - 23 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6342

Abstract

Human–elephant conflict is increasing across many parts of Asia and Africa. Mitigating elephant crop raiding has become a major focus of conservation intervention, however, many existing methods for tackling this problem are expensive and difficult to execute. Thus, there is a need for more affordable, farm-based methods. Testing these methods is key to ensuring their effectiveness and feasibility. In this study, we tested a novel olfactory deterrent, the “smelly elephant repellent”, a foul-smelling organic liquid, on 40 farms in Uganda and Kenya. Our results show that the repellent was effective at deterring elephants from crop raiding. Over the study period, 82% of 309 elephant crop raids were deterred in Uganda. In Kenya, the repellent deterred 63% of 24 crop raiding incidents, and there was a significant effect of the repellent on test sites compared with control sites. The smelly repellent could be a helpful crop raiding mitigation tool for farmers, as this study showed it to be effective, relatively cheap, quick to produce from locally available ingredients, and communities have a positive attitude towards using it. Ongoing work is exploring the potential for a market-based approach to take this to scale in a financially sustainable way. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People)

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12 pages, 1447 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Demographic Circumstances and People’s Sentiments towards Elephants in the Human–Elephant Conflict Hotspot Villages of Keonjhar Forest Division in Eastern India

by Bismay Ranjan Tripathy, Xuehua Liu and Vikram Ranga

Diversity 2022, 14(5), 311; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/d14050311 - 20 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2938

Abstract

The socio-economic aspects of the people who directly share space with elephants not only influence the occurrence of human-elephant conflict (HEC) but also shape their sentiments towards coexistence with elephants. The objectives of this paper are to (i) assess the demographic situation and map people’s sentiments towards elephants in the HEC hotspot villages of the Keonjhar forest division in India and (ii) rank the most suitable policy instruments and the urgency of mitigation strategies. The results indicated that cultivation and marginal agriculture were positively related with HEC incidences, whereas literacy and employment were negatively associated. Despite being severely affected by human–elephant conflict, many of the respondents (78%) in the HEC hotspot regions still had positive sentiments towards elephants. According to expert opinions, strengthening of laws regarding land use facilitation and interlinking conservation values to socio-cultural aspects need urgent implementation in order to balance infrastructural development and protection of ecosystems by enhancing community participation. Communal crop guarding, chilly-dung and honeybee fencing, accompanied by tracking and maintaining an elephant locational database are suggested as the HEC mitigation methods with highest urgency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People)

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Review

Jump to: Research

21 pages, 2370 KiB

Open AccessReview

Can Humans and Elephants Coexist? A Review of the Conflict on Sumatra Island, Indonesia

by Wanda Kuswanda, Raden Garsetiasih, Hendra Gunawan, Rospita Odorlina Pilianna Situmorang, Freddy Jontara Hutapea, Rozza Tri Kwatrina, Endang Karlina, Tri Atmoko, Ma’rifatin Zahrah, Mariana Takandjandji and Donny Gunaryadi

Diversity 2022, 14(6), 420; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/d14060420 - 25 May 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5502

Abstract

The high rate of deforestation and fragmentation of elephant habitat on Sumatra Island has triggered human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Sumatra Island, Indonesia. This conflict brings negative impacts on humans and elephants. Despite numerous efforts having been made to solve this problem, the HEC continues to occur in the remaining elephant enclave every year. The harmonious coexistence between humans and elephants could be improved through HEC mitigation programs. The aim of this paper was to review information on HEC in Sumatra Island, investigate the causes and implications of HEC, review existing HEC mitigation methods, and formulate strategies to improve the harmonious coexistence between humans and elephants. The best strategies to create successful human and elephant coexistence are strengthening the institutions and policies, restoring the habitat, developing wildlife corridors, establishing Essential Ecosystem Areas (EEA), community empowerment through ecotourism, providing legal access to forests through Social Forestry (SF), and providing compensation schemes for conflict victims. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People)

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